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This article argues for conceptualising the land-water nexus not primarily in spatial terms, but above all as a set of spatiotemporal rhythms of increasing and decreasing wetness and fluidity. By investigating human engagement with water and land as rhythms, the corresponding and conflicting dynamics of particular places becoming – for longer or shorter periods – land, water or a mixture of both can be traced as an evolving web of relationships between human imaginations and practices, and the materialities of water, mud, sediment, dams, floodgates, etc. The article illustrates this approach with two brief ethnographic examples from northern Europe: In the depopulated Estonian Soomaa wetlands, some of the few remaining inhabitants are in the process of redefining unruly fluctuating water as a tourism destination. In doing so, however, these tourism operators are finding themselves and their “products” caught up in volatile and complicated spatiotemporal dynamics, including the difficulty to predict flooding and to coordinate high water with their potential customers’ spare time, which is bound to working/school weeks and public holidays. On the Kemi River in Finnish Lapland, water flows are not only conditioned by precipitation and seasons, but also – through an intricate hydropower infrastructure – by the electricity market, triggering continued disputes about appropriate spatiotemporal rhythms in the land-water nexus. Seasonality and hydroelectricity generation point to the inherent rhythmicity of the land-water nexus, which is significant not only because it reflects the experience of people inhabiting and engaging with their in-between environments. A rhythms approach can also de-centre the (often illusive) quest for what the water-land nexus is, and instead focus on how this nexus continually comes into being and is negotiated by both its inhabitants and other people. This argument builds on anthropological thinking about temporality and materiality, and indicates how the two must be combined for better understanding how human life relates to the land-water nexus.

The Earth is warming due to the burning of fossil fuels, leading to a growing interest in renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower. Hydropower plays a vital role in meeting global carbon mitigation targets, especially in the Mid-Columbia (Mid-C) energy market in the Pacific Northwest (PNW), where it currently comprises 50-65% of generation. However, with other renewable energy sources expanding, such as solar power in California (CA), hydropower operations at plants within the connected Mid-C market need to be modified to balance the more intermittent supply from renewables in CA. Our technical project aims to redesign hydropower operations in the Columbia River Basin (CRB) of the PNW to achieve a 95% renewable energy power grid in CA and the PNW by 2035, balancing objectives such as minimizing environmental spill violations, maximizing hydropower production, maximizing flood protection, and maximizing economic benefits through multi-objective optimization. The Columbia River Basin, which spans over an area of 260,000 square miles, is a significant watershed in the United States that is solely dedicated to the Columbia River. It serves as the drainage system for numerous rivers, creeks, and streams. In the 1930s, the federal government began constructing dams along this river for various purposes such as preventing floods, generating hydroelectric power, supplying water for irrigation, creating locks for navigation of boats and barges, and developing recreational areas. However, the hydropower operations and the construction of dams in the Columbia River Basin have resulted in significant environmental and social impacts, including the reduction of accessibility to salmon populations and disruption to the way of life of Indigenous populations who have relied on these lands, the Columbia River, and the salmon for centuries. The government has implicitly relied on technological determinism, sacrificing the humanitarian rights of Native Americans for the sake of hydropower advancement, while simultaneously achieving progress on their economic and environmental objectives for the larger American population who rely on the dams and the power grid. My STS research seeks to draw upon hydropower legislation and policy analyses in a global context to argue for successful approaches and frameworks for hydropower policy going forward in the California River Basin that ensure the rights and survival of Native American tribes in the region. A multi-stakeholder process in the context of hydropower in California could provide a valuable precedent for addressing the needs of multiple social groups and constituents in the future. Both projects enable me to explore how the United States can make systemic changes, motivated by the current state of the hydropower and energy sector, to balance multiple competing interests and stakeholders in the Columbia River Basin. For our technical project, we focused on adapting hydropower operations to support renewable energy transitions and freshwater sustainability in the Columbia River Basin. Achieving net-zero energy sector emissions requires rapid adoption of renewable alternatives to existing high-emissions infrastructure. The on-demand energy from hydropower uniquely facilitates the transition to renewable energy by meeting demands not met by weather-dependent energy sources like wind and solar. Because there are conflicting tradeoffs in hydropower operating policies, it was necessary for us to perform a multi-objective optimization after we had simulated the operations of reservoirs in the Columbia River Basin which serve as the supply of water for hydropower in the region. Our case study focused on designing operations at four reservoirs in the Columbia River Basin to balance environmental and economic objectives under potential future energy and climate conditions. These reservoirs included Hungry Horse, Libby, Dworshak, and Grand Coulee. Our objectives were to minimize environmental spill violations, minimize peak flood height, minimize flood frequency, maximize hydropower production, and maximize Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) revenue. We performed multi-objective optimization to design alternative reservoir operating rules that balance these conflicting objectives. We made use of two computational models – a power systems model for generating electricity prices from synthetic weather data to represent regional wind, solar, and hydropower capacities and a reservoir optimization model for generating optimal policies that balance the objectives. These models are coupled through the objective of maximizing the BPA revenue in our reservoir optimization, since calculating that revenue requires the electricity prices in the region. Our optimization model yielded nineteen non-dominated reservoir operating policies that dictate when to release water using parameters such as the previous day’s inflow and the storage of the reservoir. To evaluate the robustness of these policies and account for uncertainty, we simulated the outputted policies over four climate change scenarios and an energy scenario inspired by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL) Mid-Case with 95% Renewables by 2035. The climate change scenarios we used were futures that are dry with high warming, dry with low warming, wet with high warming, and wet with low warming. Furthermore, the energy scenario we selected describes the projected distribution of energy across renewable sources for the years 2025, 2030, and 2035. In the end, we selected one optimal policy out of the nineteen which had the least significant tradeoff between the objectives. It effectively maximized hydropower output and BPA revenue, while minimizing spills, flood height, and flood risk. In this policy, the Dworshak reservoir is used for flood protection and all policies chose to keep Grand Coulee reservoir full to maximize hydropower production. Thus, through multi-objective optimization and scenario analysis, we were able to find alternative reservoir operations for the Columbia River Basin that balance all the system objectives and are robust to uncertainty. Future work should explore how uncertainties in energy and climate interact rather than their independent influences and optimize policies across these possible futures to improve performance. For my STS project, I focused on developing potential public policy to uplift Native American tribes affected by hydropower in the Columbia River Basin. The ongoing operations of dams in the Columbia River Basin have negatively impacted salmon populations, disrupting the traditional way of life and culture of Indigenous populations who rely on salmon as a staple food and cultural symbol. The construction of these dams between the 1930s and 1980s also resulted in the displacement and loss of Native American territory, leaving tribes living in federally assigned settlements with unsafe living conditions. The heavy use of the Columbia River has caused significant declines in water quality and threatens the survival of species like salmon. The negative impacts have disproportionately affected Indigenous tribes in the region, including the Nez Perce, Warm Springs, Yakama, and Umatilla tribes who settled with the federal government for their lost sites. Notable legislation that has been enacted thus far to address the environmental disruptions to salmon populations and displacement of Native Americans include the Northwest Power Act of 1980, the Columbia Basin Water Transactions Program of 2002, the Army Corps of Engineers’ development of more permanent housing for Native Americans under the Obama Administration in 2016, the Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act of 2016, and the Biden-Harris Administration’s ongoing litigation with Indigenous tribes in the Columbia River Basin regarding salmon populations. Members of Congress and the US Department of Energy admit that inefficiencies in hydropower licensing processes are causing higher development costs and longer timelines which reduce the flexibility of the government to perform stakeholder analyses. Thus, the effects of hydropower operations on fisheries, recreation, and tribal and public lands are not being considered by the federal government. A framework I discovered in the academic literature on hydropower policy both domestically and internationally that can be applied to the case of Native Americans in the Columbia River Basin is the political ecology framework. In the paper—"Discussing Large Dams in Asia After the World Commission on Dams: Is a Political Ecology Approach the Way Forward?"—the authors present this framework which is characterized by the following: the framework examines the effects of large dams as well as the causes (economic and political motivations), it requires that ecological structures and functions be coupled with social, political, cultural, and economic influences, and it incorporates an actor-oriented model to look at environmental change and land-use conflicts that are occurring within politicized environments. In their paper, they analyze the case of the Bhakra Dam in India using this framework and comment on the social, political, and economic motivations behind the dam that are not immediately evident. An important similarity between the Bhakra Dam case and the Columbia River Basin case is the issue of arbitrary demarcations of land. The Bhakra Dam was built by India in a disputed territory with Pakistan called Punjab. Furthermore, India hindered Pakistan’s use of the Sutlej river which ran through both countries to construct the dam. In the Columbia River Basin case, Native Americans do not own the land they reside on—rather it is held ‘in trust’ by the federal government making it an arbitrary demarcation. Therefore, I pose two potential solutions using the framework of political ecology in the Columbia River Basin case—award property rights to Native Americans and design new licensing processes for hydropower. By giving Native Americans property rights, they have equity in the land and can therefore reap monetary benefits and power by selling it or cultivating the natural resources on it. With their own source of money, they can take charge over environmental restoration and uplifting the Native American community alongside the federal government instead of being dependent on the government for change to occur. By designing new licensing processes for hydropower, this enables the federal government to place reasonable conditions on hydropower licenses and protect tribal and public lands, safeguard water quality, and fishery resources.

The share of world energy consumption for electricity generation by source is primarily based on coal and natural gas. Within the last years, governments have implemented policies to promote investment in renewable energy. In Ecuador, the share of hydroelectricity has rapidly increased without regarding long-term environmental impacts. This paper aims to develop a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of two representative plants of Ecuador (Agoyán and Paute, with 156 MW and 1075 MW of installed capacity, respectively). The life cycle inventory contains the primary flows of energy and matter during the construction, operation, and final disposal stages, with 1 kWh as a functional unit. The life cycle impact assessment uses the CML 2000 midpoint potential categories, including Abiotic Depletion, Acidification, Eutrophication, and Global Warming. The construction stage is the leading contributor to the global impacts, and the dam the environmental hot spot of both plants, and the reservoir flooding represents the major contributor to the impact during the operation stage. Furthermore, electricity generation in plants with a larger scale can lead to fewer impacts, suggesting that constructing large-scale plants can reduce the global impacts in countries with similar hydropower potential. This methodological framework serves as a decision-making criterion for evaluating the environmental performance of other renewable energy systems.

This study employs the econometrics test of endogenous structural breaks to separately investigate the changes in trends of the share of hydropower and non-hydro renewable power in electricity production for China using two separate sub-panels of data spanning from 1971 to 2015 and 1990–2015. To identify structural changes in each renewable power generation series, we apply the Bai and Perron procedure for determining structural breaks to estimate shifting-mean autoregressions and use the low frequency Fourier-type Lagrange Multiplier test to approximate the time series in a non-linear form. Through these tests, our empirical results reveal that the series under investigation are characteristic of segmented trend stationary processes around four or one structural breaks, among which, there are two upward shifts in the 45-year series of hydroelectricity generation occurring in 1978 and 2008, respectively. Meanwhile, one upward shift is identified in the 26-years series of non-hydro renewable generation occurring in 2005. The patterns in the timing of structural changes are suggestive of the causal effects from the recent regulatory shocks and policy change. In the present study, we conduct an innovative attempt to reveal the relevance of renewable energy and policy changes, which may also provide some empirical value in investigating the effect of policy series on renewable energy in other countries.

This study evaluates the impact of future climate change (CC) on the hydropower generation potential of the Bamboi catchment (Black Volta) in West Africa using a conceptual rainfall-runoff model (HBV light) and regional climate models (RCMs)–global climate models (GCMs). Two climate simulation datasets MPI-ESM-REMO (CORDEX) and GFDL-ESM2M-WRF (WASCAL) under RCP4.5 were applied to the validated hydrological model to simulate the catchment runoff. Based on reference and future simulated discharges, a theoretical 1.3 MW run of river hydro power plant was designed to evaluate the hydropower generation. Hydrological and hydropower generation changes were expressed as the relative difference between two future periods (2020–2049 and 2070–2099) and a reference period (1983–2005). The climate models' ensemble projected a mean annual precipitation increase by 8.8 % and 7.3 % and discharge increase by 11.4 % and 9.735 % for the 2020–2049 and 2070–2099 periods respectively (for bias corrected data). On the contrary an overall decrease of hydropower generation by −9.1 % and −8.4% for the 2020–2049 and 2070–2099 periods was projected respectively. The results indicate that projected increases in discharge should not solely be considered as leading to an increase in hydropower potential when prospecting climate change impact on hydropower.

Nowadays, special attention is paid to hydroelectric production because it is an efficient, reliable, and renewable source of energy, especially in developing countries like Cameroon, where hydropower potential is the main source of electricity production. It also represents a useful tool to reduce the atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations caused by human activities. However, it is the most sensitive industry to global warming, mainly because climate change will directly affect the quality, quantity of water resources (streamflow and runoff), which are the important drivers of hydropower potential. This study examined the response of hydropower potential to climate change on the Lagdo dam located in the Benue River Basin, Northern Cameroon. Hydropower potential was computed based on streamflow simulated using HBV-Light hydrological model with dynamically downscaled temperature and precipitation from the regional climate model REMO. These data were obtained using the boundary conditions of two general circulation models (GCMs): the Europe-wide Consortium Earth System Model (EC-Earth) and the Max Planck Institute-Earth System Model (MPI-ESM) under three Representative Concentrations Pathways (RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). The results suggest that, the combination of decreased precipitation and streamflow, increased PET will negatively impact the hydropower potential in the Lagdo dam under climate change scenarios, models and future periods.

Currently, households in the East Region of Cameroon (ERoC) depend solely on fossil-fueled plants to meet their energy needs. Fossil fuel-based sources are a major drain on public finance in addition to being a key contributor to the increase in carbon footprints. Alternatively, the ERoC is blessed with a hydropower potential estimated at around 620.37 MW, with a production potential of 5.36 TWh per year. However, despite its favorable candidates’ sites, hydropower resources are yet to be harnessed in the ERoC. Hence, the need for a thorough assessment of hydropower potential is necessary in order to increase stakeholders’ awareness and interest in attractive hydropower resources. This paper evaluates and highlights the hydropower potential of seven selected locations in the ERoC and contributes to constituting a database for the stakeholders of the hydropower resources for electricity generation. Specifically, hydrological data, mean flow rates and mean volume contributions on each site’s river basin are explored. Furthermore, the present work highlights optimal regulation ratios, nominal flow rates, producible energy, investment costs as well as other useful parameters for projected hydropower plants for the seven selected locations in the ERoC. The results display a cumulative projected capacity of 582 MW, of which 19 MW from Zoukoumanbale, 18 MW from Colomines, 53 MW from Zoulabot, 297 MW from Nki falls, 129 MW from Yenga, 35 MW from Bangue and 124 MW from Ngoila. Moreover, 3 929 GWh are projected cumulative producible energy for the selected locations. Investment costs estimates of hydroelectric plants range between 2 964 € per kW (for Colomines) and 3 002 € per kW (for Bangue).

This paper presents renewable energy systems based on micro-hydro and solar photovoltaic for rural areas, with a case study in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The Special Region of Yogyakarta, located on the island of Java, Indonesia, has a high potential for the development of renewable energy resources, especially hydropower and solar power. Many rural areas in Yogyakarta lack a supply of electricity. In this study, data on the potential for hydropower and solar power in rural regions of Yogyakarta are processed to determine the best capacity of hydroelectric and solar power plants. The extended particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique has been used to ensure optimal capacity optimization of this hybrid systems. The final result of this study is the most optimal of hydropower and solar power generation capacity based on the calculation of cost of capital, grid sales, cost of energy, and net present value.

Energy consumption in Pakistan has increased considerably over the last two decades particularly due to industrialization, urbanization, and population growth. To keep pace with the economic growth, the growing energy demands have been fulfilled at the cost of switching from abundant, cheap, and environmentally friendly domestic hydropower to expensive, imported, and higher GHG emitting petroleum products, thus leaving Pakistan at the mercy of global oil crises and environmental degradations. While employing the trans-log production framework, this study has investigated the potential inter-fuel and inter-factor substitution among energy vs. non-energy factors in calculating substitution elasticities between pairs of labour, capital, petroleum, coal, natural gas, and hydroelectricity in order to design policy for Pakistan on how to ensure secure energy and environmental protection. Using the time-series data covering the period 1980–2017, the ridge regression technique was adopted to calculate parameter estimates. The findings show that labour-energy and capital-energy are substitutes, thus signifying the need for greater focus on technological progress and skilled employment creation to save energy and mitigate CO2 emissions. The gradual removal of energy subsidies is suggested to discourage inefficient energy use and stimulate capital-intensive production approaches. The findings also advocate the significance of a diversified energy-mix consisted of hydroelectricity and natural gas.

The real-time optimal load dispatch (OLD) problem in a hydropower plant aims to determine the generation level of each generating unit (GU) in the most efficient way and a few seconds. Due to the hydro production function (HPF), it is a nonlinear programming (NLP) problem that can be efficiently handled via mixed-integer linear programming (MILP). However, solving the real-time OLD of the Santo Antonio Hydro Plant (SAHP) is particularly challenging, both in terms of modeling and execution time, due to the following issues: (1) there are 50 GUs with different hydraulic efficiency curves; (2) the gross head is dependent of the GU dam location; and (3) significant (and potentially dangerous) losses in the trash racks produced by the Madeira River debris. In this scenario, this paper presents a recommendation system for the real-time OLD of the SAHP based on MILP. In real-time, the system employs gross head and trash rack losses measures to model and solve a MILP problem that obtains the GUs power level to be used by the hydro plant operator. We compare the system solution with the strategy currently used by the plant operator and with the equal dispatch between the identical GUs. The results emphasize the improvement in plant productivity. In the 2019 year, for example, the OLD real-time recommendation system presents a 9852.63 MWh increasing in power energy generation.

In this study, the downstream slope of a dam impounding the upper reservoir of Lam Ta Khong (LTK) hydroelectric energy storage in Thailand was found to slide at a higher pace during the rainy season. After a thorough site investigation, laboratory tests, and numerical modeling to identify the main cause of the movement, it was found that as rainfall infiltrated the upper soil layer, the claystone of the downstream slope deteriorated when in contact with the water. As a remedial measure, 174,750 m2 of geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) was used to cover the entire downstream slope of the dam, and proved to be an effective and economical solution for reducing the ongoing movement. The GCL included a textured high-density polyethylene (HDPE) layer for improving the resistance and minimizing the slippage at the interface between the GCL and underlying rock. Before the dam's remediation, the settlement point demonstrated a movement of nearly 0.1 m/year. In contrast, after the placement of the GCL, almost all settlement points moved less than 0.1 m for a recorded period of more than 4 years.

Congestion in power flow, voltage fluctuation occurs if electricity production and consumption are not balanced. Application of some electrical energy storage (EES) devices can control this problem. Pumped hydroelectricity storage (PHS), electro-chemical batteries, compressed air energy storage, flywheel, etc. are such EES. Considering the technical maturity level, storage time, capital cost, life cycle, potential etc., in India, PHS is found to be the best possible option with no additional fuel needs. In India, the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has identified 63 sites where 96,524 MW PHS can be installed but at present 9 PHS with a total installed capacity of 4785.6 MW are in operation and 1205 MW is under construction [February 2021, CEA]. Therefore, India has wide scope to enhance its hydropower generation along with PHS. Generally, the lifespan of a PHS project is at least 50 years and these hydro projects help in reducing carbon footprint of Indian power sector as well as conserving scarce fossil fuels. So, in this paper, all the technical views related to PHS are discussed along with total PHS scenario of India as well as the constraints and policies are summarized.

This investigation intends to answer the question of whether worldwide governance indicators have an impact on the improvement of the hydropower industry in 28 European Union (EU) countries from 1996 until 2018. Applying the panel fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS), the outcomes demonstrate the inclined hydropower industry growth and an increase in worldwide governance indicators. While opinions and responsibilities, governmental steadiness, effective governance, judicial enforcement, quality administration, and control of fraudulent conduct were found to expand the hydropower industry growth. The results illustrate that hydropower industry growth in EU28 states is well increased by improving the quality of worldwide governance indicators in production and operation procedures. Ultimately, it will help in the global warming discussions. The evaluated outcomes are believed to be justifiably validated by panel dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) and pooled ordinary least squares (OLS). The paper endorsed in the EU28 region to expand the role hydropower industry in worldwide governance to achieve hydropower growth and lessen CO2 releases. The authorities in the EU28 region should have more financial aid in hydropower governance to improve its hydroelectricity production and availability. The EU28 region administrations can focus on the efficacy of hydropower governance to attain hydroelectricity guarantee, sustainability, and to lessen traditional oil dependency, correspondingly.

En Ecuador, la energía hidroeléctrica excede el 90% de la energía eléctrica y el Complejo Hidroeléctrico Paute Integral es el más importante en generación eléctrica. Dadas las características de la infraestructura de este complejo, el despacho hidrotérmico de mediano plazo (MTHD, por sus siglas in inglés) es de gran importancia, ya que permitiría establecer reglas operativas que sin duda impactarían en el costo total de generación del sistema eléctrico del país. Es por esto que se presenta dos estudios de MTHD: el primero de tipo probabilístico con variables estocásticas para los caudales afluentes a las represas del complejo y para la carga a ser atendida. Este estudio se lo compara con un segundo modelo propuesto por el autor, el cual se basa en encontrar niveles óptimos diarios para cada represa bajo análisis realizando una simulación diaria del sistema. Al realizar la comparación de los dos modelos, en términos de reglas operativas son altamente coincidentes; sin embargo, en términos de energía producida por el Complejo Paute Integral, el segundo modelo, con mayor nivel de detalle, y mediante una efectiva coordinación de la operación entre centrales hidroeléctricas en cascada, logra aprovechar mejor el recurso hídrico y en consecuencia una mayor producción del complejo.

Paper presents the software package thatimplements the ability to study hydroelectric power systems withcomplex hydraulic connections, planning long-term regime ofhydro power plant with the requirements of water users on theexample of the Votkinsk hydroelectric plants, and training forthe calculation of the water-energy regime of hydroelectricpower. The complex is developed in the high-level Pythonprogramming language based on the current requirementsspecified in the rules for the use of water resources of theVotkinsk reservoir. The calculation in the software package isperformed by the direct method. Given that the software packageis suitable for both research and training. To improve the qualityof the calculation, we consider method of swarm optimization.The complex is planned to be used in the course of laboratorywork on the planning of the HPP operation mode.

Hydropower is one of the renewable energy sources. Hydropower plants generate electricity using the kinetic energy of flowing water. Although hydroelectric power plants are not as prominent as solar or wind farms, it should be noted that they generate the most significant amount of the power. They are also the most technically advanced projects. Power plants are built with different technical parameters of turbines, different sizes of dams or weirs and different ways of exploiting the energy of flowing water. A common feature, however, is the significant impact of hydroelectric power plants on the functioning of adjacent regions. The paper divides this impact into economic and local development, landscape, and ecological functions, emphasizing the interaction of these influences. The paper discusses the hydromorphological changes taking place in the immediate vicinity of the structure, as a consequence of channel development. The processes of aggradation and degradation of the channel are the answer to hydrodynamic equilibrium loss. These hydrodynamic processes are associated with the subsequent ecological response of the habitat. The most important of these include the dynamic equilibrium loss by the river and the subsequent morphological parameters striving to restore it according to Lane's relation, known as the most important principle in the fluvial morphology science. The impact of the hydropower plant on the fluvial environment results, first of all, from a significant environmental impact of the damming of the river itself. If the structure is correctly designed, maintained, and operated, it allows controlling the water conditions upstream and downstream with simultaneous energy production. Due to several geometric, hydraulic, and granulometric changes, and further, the resultant economic, landscape, and natural changes that significantly affect the operation of a region, these should be considered as early as the design stage and should be an integral part of any hydroelectric project.

In this paper, independent optimization operation strategy and global optimization operation strategy for cascaded hydropower plants are studied in aim to maximize total power energy of all the cascaded hydropower plants. In the first strategy, upstream hydropower plants are optimally operated first and then obtained results are used to operate downstream hydropower plants. On the contrary, all hydropower plants are operated simultaneously in the second strategy. The two strategies are accomplished by using an improved cuckoo search algorithm (ICSA) together with particle swarm optimization (PSO), cuckoo search algorithm (CSA), Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA), sunflower optimization algorithm (SFO), equilibrium optimizer (EO) and marine predator algorithm (MPA). Result comparisons can lead to the evaluation that the first strategy can bring more benefits for upstream plants whereas the second strategy is more suitable for downstream hydroelectric plants. For the purpose of maximizing total energy of all plants, the second strategy is more effective than the first strategy. Compared to PSO, CSA, SSA, SFO, EO and MPA, ICSA method finds higher energy with a highly faster speed. Thus, the paper suggests the second strategy should be executed for hydroelectric plants in cascaded reservoir systems and ICSA can be a favorable method for implementing the recommended optimization operation strategy.

Waduk Jatiluhur is in Jatiluhur Subdistrict, Purwakarta Regency, West Java Province. Now Perum Jasa Tirta II as a manager has been developing Waduk Jatiluhur as an integrated tourism area through Tourism Division with the aim of improving development effectiveness. Based on the results of the study can be concluded that the main of supporting factors is the beautiful natural panorama, the extent of Waduk Jatiluhur area and the atmosphere of tourism objects that provide comfort for visitors. However, the pattern of land use in Waduk Jatiluhur area that is considered to have supported the tourism activities does not have a zoning system so that the activity of tourism and hydropower activities have not had a clear division of zones. In supporting the development of tourism in Waduk Jatiluhur, zoning area is needed to separate the core activities of the Dam River Basin and Hydroelectric Power Plant with tourism activities or with community ponds to avoid errors in the land use so that the development of tourism can provide maximal contribution.

Several activities regarding water resources management are dependent on accurate monthly streamflow forecasting, such as flood control, reservoir operation, water supply planning, hydropower generation, energy matrix planning, among others. Most of the literature is focused on propose, compare, and evaluate the forecasting models. However, the decision on forecasting approaches plays a significant role in such models’ performance. In this paper, we are focused on investigating and confront the following forecasting approaches: i) use of a single model for the whole series (annual approach) versus using 12 models, each one responsible for predicting each month (monthly approach); ii) for multistep forecasting, the use of direct and recursive methods. The forecasting models addressed are the linear Autoregressive (AR) and Periodic Autoregressive (PAR) models, from the Box & Jenkins family, and the Extreme Learning Machines (ELM), an artificial neural network architecture. The computational analysis involves 20 time series associated with hydroelectric plants indicated that the monthly approach with the direct multistep method achieved the best overall performances, except for the cases in which the coefficient of variation is higher than two. In this case, the recursive approach stood out. Also, the ELM overcame the linear models in most cases.

This work is devoted to the theoretical study of the relationship of hydroelectric power parameters of the hydroelectric power Station with weather changes in natural and climatic factors on the territory of the hydraulic cascades of the Kyrgyz Republic and the determination of the potential of the Toktogul reservoir of the Kyrgyz Republic.

Ladder hydropower systems can improve hydropower stability by dispatching the load among each station. However, the impact to ecosystem brought by the stations is obvious. In order to study the ecological and economic performance of ladder hydropower systems, this paper conducts an emergy evaluation on the ladder hydropower system of the Lancang River in Yunnan Province, China. Based on the input and output data of each station, the emergy indices under separate and combined operation modes are calculated. The ecological service losses show that the impact of hydropower stations on environment is mainly reflected in the sediment loss, followed by soil erosion and non-endangered biodiversity loss. The results of other emergy indices for the separate operation mode show good sustainability of the hydropower stations. As for the combined operation mode, the sustainability index of the system will finally be 8.88, which means a good utilization efficiency and sustainability. The fair price of the system is 0.205 yuan/kWh when the seven stations are operated, which is higher than the grid connected hydroelectricity price in Yunnan province, demonstrating that the system is unprofitable. Considering the results of economic and emergy analysis, a better economic benefit and sustainability could be achieved when Jinghong and Gongguoqiao hydropower stations are cancelled.

Africa is characterised by a very high solar potential, with a yearly sum of solar irradiation exceeding 2000 kWh/m2. Many African countries are heavily dependent on hydropower, however, increasingly frequent droughts have been severely affecting hydropower generation in the last few decades. The installation of floating photovoltaics (FPV) in existing hydropower reservoirs, would provide solar electricity to help compensate hydropower production during dry periods and reduce evaporation losses while helping to sustainably satisfy the current and future energy needs of the fast-growing African population. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the potential of FPV installation in Africa, by using highly accurate water surface data of the largest 146 hydropower reservoirs in the continent. In addition to the electricity production, evaporation savings and the potential extra hydroelectricity generated by these water savings are also estimated at reservoir level for four different cases and two types of floating structures. The results indicate that with a total coverage of less than 1%, the installed power capacity of existing hydropower plants can double and electricity output grow by 58%, producing an additional 46.04 TWh annually. In this case, the water savings could reach 743 million m3/year, increasing the annual hydroelectricity generation by 170.64 GWh.

Traditional hydropower generation is one of the most sustainable energy sources; however, the local environmental impact of hydroelectric dams and reservoirs is serious, and hydroelectric power requires high-cost turbines and generators. Because these installations utilize gravitational potential energy of massive volumes of falling water, this sort of hydropower generation is unsuitable for ubiquitous, small-scale energy production. Here, we report that wetting and evaporation of pure water from a tiny block of porous alumina generates electrical current in the direction of water transpiration. The current induced in microporous alumina is associated with mass transport of water accompanying ions that accumulate near the negatively charged surface of alumina pores. Without any pre-treatment or additives, once evaporation commences, a 3×3 cm2 piece of alumina can generate an open-circuit voltage as large as 0.27 V. The power generation scheme we propose here is simple, clean, and versatile, and it can be employed anywhere, as it utilizes only spontaneous capillary action of water and Coulombic interaction at the alumina-water interface, without requiring any input of heat or light.

Deforestation and forest degradation are among the leading global concerns, as they could reduce the carbon sink and sequestration potential of the forest. The impoundment of Kenyir River, Hulu Terengganu, Malaysia, in 1985 due to the development of hydropower station has created a large area of water bodies following clearance of forested land. This study assessed the loss of forest carbon due to these activities within the period of 37 years, between 1972 and 2019. The study area consisted of Kenyir Lake catchment area, which consisted mainly of forests and the great Kenyir Lake. Remote sensing datasets have been used in this analysis. Satellite images from Landsat 1-5 MSS and Landsat 8 OLI/TRIS that were acquired between the years 1972 and 2019 were used to classify land uses in the entire landscape of Kenyir Lake catchment. Support vector machine (SVM) was adapted to generate the land-use classification map in the study area. The results show that the total study area includes 278,179 ha and forest covers dominated the area for before and after the impoundment of Kenyir Lake. The assessed loss of carbon between the years 1972 and 2019 was around 8.6 million Mg C with an annual rate of 0.36%. The main single cause attributing to the forest loss was due to clearing of forest for hydro-electric dam construction. However, the remaining forests surrounding the study area are still able to sequester carbon at a considerable rate and thus balance the carbon dynamics within the landscapes. The results highlight that carbon sequestration scenario in Kenyir Lake catchment area shows the potential of the carbon sink in the study area are acceptable with only 17% reduction of sequestration ability. The landscape of the study area is considered as highly vegetated area despite changes due to dam construction.

Amorpha fruticosa L. is a kenophyte of North American origin, ergaziophyte. Currently, this species has naturalized over large areas and has become the background on the coastal waters of the Dnieper reservoirs of hydropower stations. It is necessary to clarify the reasons for the distribution of A. fruticosa populations in different parts of the Middle Dnieper coast under conditions of artificial regulation of its water yield. It has been proven that the high buoyancy of A. fruticosa fruits provides the possibility of its active dispersal along river beds in a natural way under conditions of fluctuations in the level of surface water yield at the time of spring floods. The main and determining factor in the active dissemination of the species on the coast of the Kanev and Kremenchug reservoirs is the frequent variability of the maximum water surface level. The narrow altitudinal span of distribution of this species on the coast in the lower parts and, accordingly, wider span in the upper parts of the reservoirs are determined by the corresponding indicators of water level differences. The possibility of artificial regulation of the water surface level with knowledge of the characteristics of hydrochory of this invasive species makes it possible to influence its distribution in the territory near the reservoirs.

A comprehensive optimization model was developed to identify the optimal set of non-storage based small hydropower projects (SHP) along a given river reach. The model was based on a greedy genetic algorithm that maximizes net annual benefit. For each project, the model determines intake location, penstock diameter and length, and turbine number and capacity. The novel features in the model include: 1) bi-level optimization that produces robust results, 2) improved search for SHP intake locations, 3) inclusion of turbine number as an explicit optimization variable, and 4) nested optimization modules and parallelized execution. Model performance was assessed through application to the Mamquam River in Canada and the Guder River in Ethiopia. For the Mamquam River, the model identified seven feasible projects. The model provided suggestions for further improvement of one of the two existing SHPs on the river through shifting the intake 1.2 km upstream of the existing intake to provide a greater net benefit. No SHPs have been constructed on the Guder River yet; however, the model suggested 19 potential SHPs that could provide 62% higher annual net benefit compared to the results of a previous model recently applied to the same study area.

The projection of the renewable energy target in 2025 is 23%. The high production cost makes it difficult to compete with fossil plants. The strategy chosen to reduce the risk is to eliminate minor overhauls in power plants to increase production. To prove its effectiveness, hydropower was chosen by using markov chain method. It took samples for 26 months and divided plant into 3 states based on the operating performance. The test was between implementation of overhauls on schedule and eliminating minor overhauls when the status was good. The results of data processing obtained that the best decision is not to do minor overhaul elimination because of the potential to reduce 29.77% good conditions, 30.69% improvement in moderate conditions. Comparison between the 2017-2019 data show there’s no production cost reduction even though potential production increase. Calculation can be implemented into a web form using the PHP on the Laravel Framework

The article considers modern problems and problems that currently exist in hydraulic engineering and hydropower, problems of land and water resources. And also problems of training of experts. able to solve these problems Recently, the problems caused by existing large hydraulic structures are increasingly mentioned. The main problem is that the nodes of hydraulic structures often form artificial reservoirs of a large plane. It often happens that the depths of reservoirs are insignificant. This situation is very unsatisfactory because the land is used irrationally. which is a valuable resource and has a high cost and can be used effectively for agriculture. Creation of hydraulic structures, complexes of hydraulic structures significantly change the hydrological, biological. salt and thermal regimes of the river on which they are built, the regime of groundwater movement, cause climate change in the surrounding areas. Cascades of hydraulic structures have a special influence. As an example, we can cite the Dnieper cascade of hydroelectric power plants and compare the area of its reservoirs and the amount of electricity generated by its power plants with the world's largest hydroelectric power plants. In addition, shallow water bodies cause a significant deterioration in water quality. And since reservoirs are often a source of water supply for settlements and industrial enterprises, this situation is controversial. Intensive construction of hydraulic structures and their complexes took place during the twentieth century, many of them exhausted their resources and needed either reconstruction or decommissioning. The reasons for this state of affairs are the development of technology, the emergence and development of other alternative energy sources for thermal and nuclear power plants, other than hydraulic. Also, since the construction of many buildings, approaches to determining their profitability and efficiency have changed. Aspects of training specialists in hydraulic engineering and water engineering, able to solve these problems of the industry today, and those that will face them in the near future are considered. The ability of a competent professional to anticipate the consequences of any action must be an integral part of it. Attention is drawn to the need to apply conceptually new approaches to solving problems of construction of new hydraulic and hydropower facilities, operation and reconstruction of existing facilities.

The quest for other alternative and sustainable energy prompted the feasibility assessment of Zobe dam meant for irrigation to produce electricity; In this write-up the scheme is designed to operate with two turbines; turbine T1 to operate all year round to take account of the irrigation need downstream, The second turbine T2 will operate on a spill discharge, and to be available for four months with a generation capacity of 0.969 MW. T1 is expected to discharge 55,500,000m3 within six months to cater for irrigation need with an average discharge rate of 3.6m3 /s. it was found that, the dam has the potential to generate a minimum 0.671MW all year round and a maximum of 1.5MW of power during Peak discharge period. The scheme was designed with minimum modification of the existing infrastructure at site which translate to minimum cost implication in construction, system operation and maintenance. Keywords: Economic transformation, Energy, hydropower, Irrigation farming, Zobe dam

Although storage-reliability-yield (SRY) relationships have been widely used in the design and planning of water supply reservoirs, their application in hydroelectricity is practically nil. Here, w...

Hydroelectric stations are a renewable source of electricity, but social and environmental impacts have been hindering social acceptance of new projects. The hydroelectricity sector has been invest...

Hydroelectric projects are often pursued on the promise of economic development and environmental co-benefits as a source of low-carbon energy. We analyse the case of the Muskrat Falls hydropower mega-project (located in Labrador, Canada) to understand why this project failed to live up to its promised benefits, but instead delivered a double disaster of economic cost and environmental risk. The key concepts of anti-reflexivity and deep stories help us understand why the project assumed an aura of inevitability in political and public discourse until it was too late to change course. Drawing on publicly available data and secondary sources, we identify the constellation of social forces that maintained political anti-reflexivity about the economic and environmental risks of the project and led to a double economic and environmental disaster. Our analysis identifies vital lessons for countering anti-reflexivity and improving environmental governance related to energy mega-projects.

The feasibility study is one of the principal documents in building a hydropower plant consisting of technical, economic, and financial aspects. Contained technical studies on civil, mechanical, and electrical. This requires data on hydrologic, geology, land contours, river discharge, water catchment areas, and so on. Economic and financial studies include cost and financial parameters such as; BEP, IRR, NVP, BCR, and others. The installed capacity of a hydropower plant is given in optimization based on the Flow Duration Curve (FDC) and the Capacity Factor (CF) used the Newton Interpolation Method. The results showed that the installed power capacity was 11.99 MW. The water discharge was 31.603 m3/secs and the effective head was 37.5 meters. Annual income is around IDR 103.026 billion. Finally, HPP Lubuak Gadang is technically, economically, and financially feasible, so it is feasible to carry out the next process.

In this paper, renewable hydropower plant generators with permanent magnet synchronous generator are coupled via a diode bridge rectifier - DC/DC boost converter and three-phase inverter to a power grid. This paper studies a new control structure focused a backstepping control of the energy generation system.The proposed methods for adjusting the active and reactive power by adjusting the currents, the DC bus voltage on the main side converter, as well as the voltage at the output of the DC-DC boost converter. The main objective of this control is to obtain purely sinusoidal and symmetrical grid current signals, to suppress oscillations in reactive power and to cancel active power chattering in the event of grid imbalance. In order to optimize the energy flow in the different parts of the production process, an energy control algorithm is developed in order to attenuate the fluctuations in the water flow, the grid system of the hydropower plant considered has been implemented in Matlab/Simulink, the results show the effectiveness of the proposed method. To analyze our approach, a prototype is modeled, simulated and can be performed in an experimental test setup.

The role that hydropower plays in the world’s energy balance is considered, and a comparative analysis of using hydropower resources in Russia and abroad is presented. It is shown that Russia occupies the world’s second place in its hydropower potential after China; however, no more than 20% of the country’s hydraulic power resources have presently been harnessed. This is significantly lower than in Germany, France, Sweden, and Japan, countries in which 65–90% of their available hydraulic power resources are used. In view of a great variety of natural conditions, turbines of different types are used in the hydraulic power industry. It has been determined that the power performance indicators (efficiency and capacity) of the hydraulic machines that are presently produced in Russia correspond, as in the years of the former Soviet Union, to world-class standards. Trends in the development of hydropower and construction of hydraulic turbines are analyzed. It is shown that, given insignificant scales of constructing new hydroelectric power plants in Russia, replacement of the equipment at the existing hydroelectric power plants that had worked out its standard service life long ago is the industry’s main development line for the nearest (10–15 years) future. The need to replace the operating hydraulic machines mainly stems from inefficient utilization of water stream at the existing hydroelectric power plants. It is pointed out that, despite the emerged tendency toward decreasing the reliability of hydraulic power units that have been in operation for a long period of time, its catastrophic drop is not observed at any of the examined hydroelectric power plants even though their machines have been in operation for twice as much as their standard service life (30 years) or even more. Refurbishment of the machines makes it possible and shall mandatorily improve the power performance characteristics of the machines, resulting in an increased power capacity or improved efficiency (of energy generation). An improvement in the power performance characteristics of new hydraulic turbines is achieved almost solely due to the use of more advanced runners while keeping the other flow path elements unchanged.

Small hydroelectric power (SHP) facilities are proliferating around the world, including in Brazil where legislation encourages SHP over other hydropower development, defining SHP as facilities with installed capacities of 3–30 MW and reservoirs

The source of water flow in rivers or irrigation canals has a relatively small flow rate of water , which can be used as a pico hydropower plant. One of the main components of a pico hydropower plant is a water wheel, a hybrid pico hydropower plant is a combination of hydroelectric power and solar power. By utilizing the power of the water flow in a small river or ditch in Wukirsari hamlet, we designed a waterwheel that will convert the energy of motion into electrical energy. The solar panel system designer uses a 50 wp solar cell, a 300 W inverter, a 10 Ampere solar charger controller, and a 12 Volt, 32 Ah battery. The no-load test results on the performance of the single pinwheels and the performance of the double pinwheels at a water level of 37 cm get an average power of 3.2 W and 2.11 W. The resulting voltage is 6.72 V, the current is 0.46 A for a single mill, while for the double pinwheel the voltage is 5,26 , and the current is 0.38 A. From the experimental results, it is better if the single pinwheel and the double pinwheel are used. In a series of no-load solar panels from Power test results , at 11.00 GMT+7 the highest power value was 33.25 W. The electricity generated by the pico hydro hybrid was used by the people of Wukirsari Hamlet as street lighting. Key words: water wheel, hybrid power, solar panels

The electricity potential in Ghana has become a huge challenge to the nation, which increases the country’s economic growth and reduces Nation’s development. The study highlights the trends on the power grid of the energy potential for the past ten years’ impact regarding the directions on the power grid, and to determine the economic potential viabilities couples with the sustainability of renewable energy sources in Ghana. The study relied on substantial reviewed literature and revealed that Ghana’s energy generation has passed through multiple stages, started from diesel generator supply systems owned by industries and factories to hydroelectricity, thermal power electricity powered by natural gas or crude oil, and solar electricity. The study showed that as of December 2017, Ghana had installed a total capacity of 4398.6 MW comprising Hydro, Thermal, and Solar Plants. Out of the full power, Hydropower generates 1580 MW representing 35.9%, Thermal generates 2796 MW, which also represents 63.6%, while 22.6 MW capacity represents 0.5%. The Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning system (LEAP) tools were employed to consider three different scenarios: energy demand, cost-benefit, and carbon limitation. 2018 was considered as the base year and 2048 as the end year. The results show that 17,800 GWh was estimated as energy demand at base year while 44,000 GWh at end year of 7% annual growth rate. The share of renewable power plants was almost zero at the current account. The share of solar thermal plants may reach 90% due to direct cost and externalities. The study adopted one-hundred-year direct GWP at the point of emissions to compare the Mitigation (MITG) and Reference (REF) scenarios. The model indicated 1.3 Million tons of CO2 saving and 4.0 billion U.S. dollars saving with a 5% discount rate in power generation until 2048, if only the country could afford to develop its generation system with the high deployment of RETs, additional benefits in the form of a sustainable safety environment and less emission carbon would be achieved in the next 30 years.

Sierra Leone is one of the least developed countries in the world, with an economy strangled by the necessity of importing rice to feed the population. In part, this deficit results from domestic farmers rarely using inorganic fertilizer, which is synthesized from fossil fuels internationally. Here, we evaluate the economic benefits of producing green ammonia from renewable local hydropower for low-carbon cost-effective fertilizer production. Its use as fertilizer estimates a 30-year net present value (NPV) of ∼$230M (∼165% return of investment) compared with simply importing fertilizers, which would already save at least $50M a year compared with the current situation of importing rice, but hinges on additional external factors related to implementing modern agriculture. In addition, green ammonia can buffer seasonal fluctuations of hydroelectricity from 900 MW to 50 MW and produce a consistently available 370 MW of power. Although this study presents an initial analysis of Sierra Leone as a case study, it exemplifies the possible economic and social benefits of green ammonia in developing countries. The use of ammonia-based fertilizers is estimated to feed ∼80% of the current world's population through the high-energy and capital-intensive Haber-Bosch process, using methane or coal as feedstock. Current research is developing technologies for the distributed production of green ammonia using solely renewable energy, opening new opportunities to those countries with access to solar, wind, and hydro power. This paper explores the implications of such green ammonia in sub-Saharan Africa, taking Sierra Leone as an example because of its high hydropower capability. It illustrates the economic and social benefits of locally produced fertilizers using their own renewable energy resources versus importing fertilizers or other agricultural products. In addition, green ammonia can also be used to buffer the seasonal variations of renewable energy, leading to a consistently available power to serve as the foundation for development. Green ammonia from renewable resources has the potential to transform the economies of sub-Saharan African countries such as Sierra Leone with high hydropower potential. Here, we show that the use of green ammonia is economically viable and will not only provide fertilizers to feed the population and modernize agriculture but also produce a consistently available power, buffering the seasonal fluctuations of renewable energy.

The growing demand for green energy has driven the development of large-capacity hydroelectric plants away from load centers. In this setting, one key aspect is constructing electrical networks for efficient power transmission to the primary grid, which is sometimes combined with high-voltage direct-current systems. However, on-site applications based on real-time dispatch problems often do not model AC power flow (ACPF) constraints, partly because of a lack of appealing methods to simultaneously include the dispatch and ACPF operating characteristics. Furthermore, a precise hydropower production function, a priority in this type of problem, can introduce additional complexity, and practical applications commonly sacrifice grid-connection modeling. This paper proposes a technique for incorporating ACPF constraints in real-time hydro dispatch, promoting widespread methods and optimization tools. The proposed strategy is based on mixed-integer quadratic programming that yields convergent electrical variables compatible with the exact ACPF to minimize a compromise between transmission losses and turbined outflow. The testbed is the Santo Antônio system, composed of 50 generating units, 13 power transformers, and 41 buses. Simulations based on real-life data demonstrate the impact of ACPF modeling, achieving consistently reduced losses above 5%, at the cost of a higher processing time.

Since the construction of the first small hydroelectric power plants (SHPP), the experience of engineering surveys in the domestic hydropower industry with its further development begins. Conducting engineering surveys during the design of Krasnogorsk SHPP-1 and SHPP-2 supplemented the accumulated experience with new methods of conducting survey work.

The description of the state of power engineering in Russia in the pre-revolutionary period, data on the production of electricity per capita are presented. A brief history of the creation of a commission for the development of the State Electrification Plan of Russia (GOELRO plan) and some results of its implementation are provided. The construction of the first large power plant in the South Urals, built according to the GOELRO plan, - Chelyabinsk State District Power Plant, which at that time was of great importance for the development of the region's industry and remains one of the most powerful power plants at the present time, is described. The possibilities of using renewable energy sources, in particular local hydropower resources for energy production, are disclosed. The problems of the Porozhskaya Hydropower Plant - the oldest and unique hydroelectric power plant in the Urals are designated, the characteristics of small hydropower plants in the Southern Urals are given, the prospects for using the hydropower potential of the Chelyabinsk region are revealed. The potential of solar and wind energy is discussed, the characteristics and features of solar power plants in the Urals and wind power plants with a vertical axis of rotation, developed at the South Ural State University, are specified. It is established that biomass as a resource for energy production has good prospects for use, but due to climatic conditions, this direction has not yet been developed. It is shown that small and distributed energy is still an important component in the general energy of the region and the country.

Brazil depends on hydroelectricity. Recently, concerns related to the water consumption by the hydropower plants (HPs) are increasing, mainly because of the severe droughts that have affected Parana Hydrograph Region (PHR). PHR accounts for more than 60% of the hydroelectricity produced in the country, being one of the most important in the world. This study aimed to evaluate Gross and Net Water Footprints (GWF and NWF) in 67 HPs installed in PHR that are belong to the Brazilian interconnected power generation and transmission system (SIN), focusing on a regional analyzes approach. We could observe that HPs with reservoirs for streamflow regularization presented the highest values of WF. HPs with a lake at a constant level (run-of-river scheme) showed the lowest WF values. A significant relationship between GWF and NWF and flooded area/installed power ratio (A/P) could be assessed by analyzing the HPs individually as well as in the basins. On average, NWF corresponded to 44.6% of the GWF, being below the average that has been estimated around the world. GWF and NWF of the hydroelectricity in PHR between 2002 and 2016 were, respectively, 25 and 11 m3 GJ−1, both lower than values estimated for other plants and regions in the world.

The human has developed a technology to produce electricity through the hydroelectric power plant to make use of water in agriculture, transport, industry, and energy. Many hydroelectric power projects does not attain all targets related to time and cost because of different risk and uncertainties present in the project. Following work is concentrated towards finding factors which are primarily responsible for time delay and cost overrun which constructing hydropower plant. The work has been done with the help of data, collected through questionnaire surveys with experts. Project failure occurs in terms of time delay and cost overrun.