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In this study the taxonomy of the Pheidole pulchella species group is updated for the Afrotropical region and the new species P. klamansp. nov. described. It is integrated into the existing taxonomic system by an updated identification key for the whole group and an update of the known distribution ranges of its members. High quality focus stacking images are provided, with X–ray micro–CT scanned digital 3D representations, of major and minor worker type specimens.

This study updates and summarizes information on the taxonomy and status of the Arabian Lepisiota fauna. We describe and illustrate the new species Lepisiota elbazisp. nov. from the Dhofar Governorate, Oman based on the worker caste. The new species is closest to the Arabian species, L. arabica Collingwood, 1985 from the southwestern mountains of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) and can be separated by having fewer body hairs (two pairs on the posterior margin of the head, two or three pairs on the promesonotum and, one or two pairs on the first gastral tergite), the longer head, scapes, and propodeal spines, and the shorter mesosoma. We present the first illustrated key to the worker caste of the Arabian species of Lepisiota using stacked digital color images to facilitate species determination. The new species is probably endemic to the Dhofar Governorate and seems rare. An up-to-date synoptic checklist of 21 species representing the Arabian Lepisiota Santschi, 1926 is emended based upon the most recent literature in ant systematics. Five species are excluded from the Arabian Lepisiota fauna, L. arenaria (Arnold, 1920), L. erythraea (Forel, 1910), L. incisa (Forel, 1913), L. sericea (Forel, 1892a), and L. simplex (Forel, 1892) for issues related to previous species misidentification. Lepisiota carbonaria (Emery, 1892) is proposed as a senior synonym of L. depilis (Emery, 1897) syn. nov. The faunal composition of Lepisiota species recorded from the Arabian Peninsula can be divided/delineated into two main groups according to their zoogeographical relationships; (1) Afrotropical (11 species-~52.38%); (2) Palearctic (10 species-~47.62%) elements whereas eight species (~38%) are Arabian endemics.

Temnothorax elmenshawyi sp. n., a new ant species from the Asir Mountains of the southwestern region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is described based on the worker caste. The new species is a member of the T. exilis species group and is distinguished from the other species included in this group by the impressed metanotal groove, the short, acute and broadly-based propodeal spines, the finely punctate posterior half of cephalic surface, and absence of a median clypeal carina. Despite extensive collecting by the authors at the type locality, only two specimens are available for description, suggesting that this species may be rare and likely endemic to the Asir Mountains. The species description is complemented by still images of volume renderings of a 3D model and a 3D rotation video of the holotype based on x-ray microtomography (micro-CT), allowing remote in-depth examination of the specimen. The virtual micro-CT data is provided as cybertype dataset and freely available online https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.4gg39k6, as well as 3D surface model (Sketchfab.com, https://skfb.ly/6HYRz). An updated identification key to the Arabian species is presented.

Despite the ecological significance of ants and the intensive research attention they have received, thorough treatments of the anatomy and functional morphology are still scarce. In this study we document the head morphology of workers of the myrmicine Wasmannia affinis with optical microscopy, μ-computed tomography, scanning electron microscopy, and 3D reconstruction, providing the first complete anatomical treatment of an ant head with a broad array of modern techniques. We discuss the potential of the applied methods to generate detailed and well-documented morphological data sets with increased efficiency. We also address homology problems, particularly in the context of the cephalic digestive tract. According to our analyses the “pharynx” of previous ant studies is homologous to the prepharynx of other insects. We also discuss the phylogenetic potential and functional significance of the observed characters, with internal features such as tentorium and musculature discussed for the first time. Our investigation underlines that detailed anatomical data for Formicidae are still very fragmentary, which in turn limits our understanding of the major design elements underlying the ant bauplan. We attempt to provide a template for further anatomical studies, which will help to understand the evolution of this fascinating group on the phenotypic level.

China’s Hengduan Mountain region has been considered one of the most diverse regions in the northern hemisphere. Its stunning topography with many deep valleys and impassable mountain barriers has promoted an astonishing diversification in many groups of organisms including plants, birds, mammals, and amphibians. However, the insect biodiversity in this region is still poorly known. Here, the first checklist of ant species from the Southern Hengduan Mountain region is presented, generated by sampling ant diversity using a wide array of collection methods, including Winkler leaf litter extraction, vegetation beating, and hand collection. 130 species/morphospecies from nine subfamilies and 49 genera were identified. Among them, 17 species from 13 genera represent new records for Yunnan province, and eight species are newly recorded for China. Moreover, we believe 41 novel morphospecies (31% of the total collected taxa) will prove to be new to science. These results highlight the rich ant fauna of this region and strongly support its status as a biodiversity hotspot. The current ant species checklist for the whole of Yunnan Province was updated by recording 550 named species from 99 genera. Taken together, our results suggest that the Yunnan ant fauna still remains under-sampled, and future sampling will likely yield many more species, among them many undescribed ones.

The distal parts of the legs of Sceliphron caementarium (Sphecidae) and Formica rufa (Formicidae) are documented and discussed with respect to phylogenetic and functional aspects. The prolegs of Hymenoptera offer an array of evolutionary novelties, mainly linked with two functional syndromes, walking efficiently on different substrates and cleaning the body surface. The protibial‐probasitarsomeral cleaning device is almost always well‐developed. A complex evolutionary innovation is a triple set of tarsal and pretarsal attachment devices, including tarsal plantulae, probasitarsomeral spatulate setae, and an arolium with an internal spring‐like arcus, a dorsal manubrium, and a ventral planta. The probasitarsal adhesive sole and a complex arolium are almost always preserved, whereas the plantulae are often missing. Sceliphron has retained most hymenopteran ground plan features of the legs, and also Formica , even though the adhesive apparatus of Formicidae shows some modifications, likely linked to ground‐oriented habits of most ants. Plantulae are always absent in extant ants, and the arolium is often reduced in size, and sometimes vestigial. The arolium contains resilin in both examined species. Additionally, resilin enriched regions are also present in the antenna cleaners of both species, although they differ in which of the involved structures is more flexible, the calcar in Sceliphron and the basitarsal comb in Formica . Functionally, the hymenopteran distal leg combines (a) interlocking mechanisms (claws, spine‐like setae) and (b) adhesion mechanisms (plantulae, arolium). On rough substrate, claws and spine‐like setae interlock with asperities and secure a firm grip, whereas the unfolding arolium generates adhesive contact on smooth surfaces. Differences of the folded arolium of Sceliphron and Formica probably correlate with differences in the mechanism of folding/unfolding.

The genusCrematogasteris one of the most species-rich and widespread groups of ants. Despite their often-high local abundance and important ecological interactions, the taxonomy of the genus is fragmentary and in great need of modern revisionary studies. As a first step towards a revision for the Arabian fauna ofCrematogaster, a review of all known species with synoptic species accounts is provided. Seventeen species are recognized and illustrated from the Arabian Peninsula, of which two new species are described:C. jacindaeSharaf & Hita Garcia,sp. nov.from the Dhofar Governorate, Oman, andC. gryllsiSharaf & Hita Garcia,sp. nov.from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) based on the worker caste.Crematogaster jacindaesp. nov.is easily separated from the remainder of the ArabianCrematogasterfauna due to its complete lack of propodeal spines, slit-shaped propodeal spiracles, and its distinct bicoloration, whereasC. gryllsisp. nov.is readily distinguished by its unlobed postpetiolar dorsum. Furthermore, new country records are presented:C. acaciaeForel for the KSA and Yemen, andC. delagoensisForel andC. jehovaeForel for the KSAC. antarisfor Qatar, whereasC. luctansForel is excluded from the Arabian fauna. In addition, on the basis of morphological examination of original type material,C. affabilisForel is proposed as junior synonym ofC. chiariniiMayr, andC. striaticepsis elevated to species rankstat. nov.Furthermore, a new identification key for the Arabian species is provided, as well as distribution maps for all species.

Advances in technology are rapidly changing the way people transmit, view, and interact with information. These advances offer new opportunities for researchers to share scientific discoveries with each other and the general public as never before. The field of revisionary biology has audiences confined to small groups of specialists, but the core task of systematic biology—documenting the endless forms of nature—is particularly well suited to capitalize on innovations in the realm of virtual, mixed and augmented reality. Interactive three-dimensional (3D) digital models of biological specimens can help bridge barriers across scientific disciplines by circumventing technical jargon, and also promise to open exciting new vistas for public engagement. Here, we explore the potential of augmented reality for communicating the discovery of new species. As a test case, we revise a radiation of Strumigenys Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) miniature trap-jaw ants in Fiji. In addition to traditional revisionary elements, we present the augmented reality application ‘Insects3D’ built specifically for this study. The application runs on mobile devices and allows users to interact with X-ray microtomography-derived 3D specimen models and visualize 3D geographic distribution maps. We recognize 23 species in Fiji, including 6 new species: S. anorak n. sp., S. artemis n. sp., S. avatar n. sp., S. gunter n. sp., S. oasis n. sp., and S. parzival n. sp. This study demonstrates the potential of leveraging 3D data and technology for a more interactive systematic biology, and the need for research programs to develop robust and generalized tools to realize this potential.

Discothyrea Roger, 1863 is a small genus of proceratiine ants with remarkable morphology and biology. However, due to cryptic lifestyle, Discothyrea are poorly represented in museum collections and their taxonomy has been severely neglected. We perform the first comprehensive revision of Discothyrea in the Afrotropical region through a combination of traditional and three-dimensional (3D) cybertaxonomy based on microtomography (micro-CT). Species diagnostics and morphological character evaluations are based on examinations of all physical specimens and virtual analyses of 3D surface models generated from micro-CT data. Additionally, we applied virtual dissections for detailed examinations of cephalic structures to establish terminology based on homology for the first time in Discothyrea. The complete datasets comprising micro-CT data, 3D surface models and videos, still images of volume renderings, and colored stacked images are available online as cybertype datasets (Hita Garcia et al. 2019, http://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.3qm4183). We define two species complexes (D. oculata and D. traegaordhi complexes) and revise the taxonomy of all species through detailed illustrated diagnostic character plates, a newly developed identification key, species descriptions, and distribution maps. In total, we recognize 20 species; of which, 15 are described as new. We also propose D. hewitti Arnold, 1916 as junior synonym of D. traegaordhi Santschi, 1914 and D. sculptior Santschi, 1913 as junior synonym of D. oculata Emery, 1901. Also, we designate a neotype for D. traegaordhi to stabilize its status and identity, and we designate a lectotype for D. oculata. The observed diversity and endemism are discussed within the context of Afrotropical biogeography and the oophagous lifestyle.

We present a revised and updated synoptic list of 44 Arabian Monomorium species, including two new species of the M. salomonis species-group: M. heggyi sp. n., and M. khalidi sp. n. We propose the following new synonyms: M. abeillei André (= M. wahibiense Collingwood & Agosti syn. n.); M. areniphilum Santschi (= M. fezzanense Collingwood & Agosti syn. n., = M. hemame Collingwood & Agosti syn. n. = M. marmule Collingwood & Agosti syn. n.); M. bicolor Emery (= M. phoenicum Santschi syn. n.); M. harithe Collingwood & Agosti (= M. najrane Collingwood & Agosti syn. n.); M. niloticum Emery (= M. matame Collingwood & Agosti syn. n.); and M. nitidiventre Emery (= M. yemene Collingwood & Agosti syn. n.). An illustrated key and distribution maps are presented for the treated species. Ecological and biological notes are given when available. The majority of Arabian Monomorium species (24) are endemic to the peninsula. All except one of the remaining species are more broadly ranging Afrotropical and Palearctic species, supporting the view of Arabia as a biogeographical crossroads between these two regions. Monomorium floricola (Jerdon), the sole species of Indomalayan origin, is recorded for the first time from the Arabian Peninsula.

Ants of the Tetramorium solidum group occur in Africa, with the vast majority of species endemic to the arid regions of southern Africa. The first revision of the genus was published more than 30 years ago and ant surveys have since considerably expanded the number of specimens available for study. The revision of this group reveals five new species, expanding the total number to 19. Almost all the species in this group occur in the southern parts of the Afrotropical region, with the exception of T . setuliferum Emery, 1895 and T . rothschildi (Forel, 1907). These two species have broad distributions within African grasslands and savannas, with T . setuliferum occurring in southern Africa and T . rothschildi in East Africa and the Sahel. Five new species are described in this revision: T . aisha sp. nov., T . brigitteae sp. nov., T . duncani sp. nov., T . lerouxi sp. nov. and T . margueriteae sp. nov. An illustrated key is presented and descriptions of new species are provided, supported by montage images and distribution maps.

Background While thousands of ant species are arboreal, very few are able to chew and tunnel through living wood. Ants of the genus Melissotarsus (subfamily Myrmicinae) inhabit tunnel systems excavated under the bark of living trees, where they keep large numbers of symbiotic armoured scale insects (family Diaspididae). Construction of these tunnels by chewing through healthy wood requires tremendous power, but the adaptations that give Melissotarsus these abilities are unclear. Here, we investigate the morphology of the musculoskeletal system of Melissotarsus using histology, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray spectrometry, X-ray microcomputed tomography (micro-CT), and 3D modelling. Results Both the head and legs of Melissotarsus workers contain novel skeletomuscular adaptations to increase their ability to tunnel through living wood. The head is greatly enlarged dorsoventrally, with large mandibular closer muscles occupying most of the dorsal half of the head cavity, while ventrally-located opener muscles are also exceptionally large. This differs from the strong closing: opening asymmetry typical of most mandibulated animals, where closing the mandibles requires more force than opening. Furthermore, the mandibles are short and cone-shaped with a wide articulatory base that concentrates the force generated by the muscles towards the tips. The increased distance between the axis of mandibular rotation and the points of muscle insertion provides a mechanical advantage that amplifies the force from the closer and opener muscles. We suggest that the uncommonly strong opening action is required to move away crushed plant tissues during tunnelling and allow a steady forward motion. X-ray spectrometry showed that the tip of the mandibles is reinforced with zinc. Workers in this genus have aberrant legs, including mid- and hindlegs with hypertrophied coxae and stout basitarsi equipped with peg-like setae, and midleg femura pointed upward and close to the body. This unusual design famously prevents them from standing and walking on a normal two-dimensional surface. We reinterpret these unique traits as modifications to brace the body during tunnelling rather than locomotion per se. Conclusions Melissotarsus represents an extraordinary case study of how the adaptation to – and indeed engineering of – a novel ecological niche can lead to the evolutionary redesign of core biomechanical systems. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12983-018-0277-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

We revise the taxonomy of the myrmicine ants of the Monomorium monomorium species-group for the Arabian Peninsula. Six species are recognized: Monomorium aeyade Collingwood & Agosti, 1996, M. clavicorne André, 1881, M. exiguum Forel, 1894, M. holothir Bolton, 1987, M. mohammedi sp. n., and M. sarawatense Sharaf & Aldawood, 2013. On the basis of the worker caste, we describe Monomorium mohammedi sp. n. from the southwestern region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). We designate a neotype for Monomorium aeyade Collingwood & Agosti and redescribe and illustrate the worker caste. Furthermore, we provide a worker-based species identification key, distribution maps for the treated species, and ecological and biological notes, if available. Monomorium holothir is recorded for the first time from the KSA. Also, we propose M. clavicorne var. punica Santschi, 1915a as a junior synonym of M. clavicorne, as well as M. dryhimi Aldawood & Sharaf, 2011 and M. montanum Collingwood & Agosti, 1996 to be treated as junior synonyms of Monomorium exiguum.

In this study we present a taxonomic update for the Aenictus ceylonicus group. A recent survey of the leaf litter ant fauna of Xingshuangbanna (Yunnan, China) yielded material of a hitherto unknown member of the group, which we describe here as Aenictus yangi sp. n. The new species is clearly distinguishable from the other species of the A. ceylonicus group based on differences in mandibular dentition, the development of the metanotal groove, the shape of the propodeum and subpetiolar process, as well as surface sculpture on the mesosoma and waist segments. In order to integrate A. yangi sp. n. into the taxonomic system created by Jaitrong and Yamane (2013) we provide an update to the identification key provided in the latter revision, as well as a diagnostic discussion and high-quality illustrations of important species and morphological characters.

The Fiji archipelago harbours a surprisingly diverse and endemic ant fauna, despite its isolated and remote location in the South Pacific. The ant genus Proceratium is present on Fiji with three endemic species, of which Proceratium oceanicum De Andrade, 2003 and Proceratium relictum Mann, 1921 were previously known. In this study we describe the third species: Proceratium vinaka sp. n. All three species are members of the widespread and species-rich Proceratium silaceum clade. In order to integrate the new species into the current taxonomic system, we present an illustrated identification key to the worker caste of the three Fijian species. In addition, we provide a detailed description of Proceratium vinaka, as well as species accounts for the other two species, which include diagnoses, taxonomic discussions, specimen photographs, and a distribution map.

New technologies for imaging and analysis of morphological characters offer opportunities to enhance revisionary taxonomy and better integrate it with the rest of biology. In this study, we revise the Afrotropical fauna of the ant genus Zasphinctus Wheeler, and use high-resolution X-ray microtomography (micro-CT) to analyse a number of morphological characters of taxonomic and biological interest. We recognise and describe three new species: Z. obamai sp. n., Z. sarowiwai sp. n., and Z. wilsoni sp. n. The species delimitations are based on the morphological examination of all physical specimens in combination with 3D scans and volume reconstructions. Based on this approach, we present a new taxonomic discrimination system for the regional fauna that consists of a combination of easily observable morphological characters visible at magnifications of around 80–100 ×, less observable characters that require higher magnifications, as well as characters made visible through virtual dissections that would otherwise require destructive treatment. Zasphinctus are rarely collected ants and the material available to us is comparatively scarce. Consequently, we explore the use of micro-CT as a non-invasive tool for the virtual examination, manipulation, and dissection of such rare material. Furthermore, we delineate the treated species by providing a diagnostic character matrix illustrated by numerous images and supplement that with additional evidence in the form of stacked montage images, 3D PDFs and 3D rotation videos of scans of major body parts and full body (in total we provide 16 stacked montage photographs, 116 images of 3D reconstructions, 15 3D rotation videos, and 13 3D PDFs). In addition to the comparative morphology analyses used for species delimitations, we also apply micro-CT data to examine certain traits, such as mouthparts, cuticle thickness, and thoracic and abdominal muscles in order to assess their taxonomic usefulness or gain insights into the natural history of the genus. The complete datasets comprising the raw micro-CT data, 3D PDFs, 3D rotation videos, still images of 3D models, and coloured montage photos have been made available online as cybertypes (Dryad, http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.4s3v1).

In this study, we review the Arabian species of the ant genus Nesomyrmex Wheeler. We provide species reviews for the two previously known species, N.angulatus (Mayr, 1862) and N.humerosus (Emery, 1896) and describe a new species N.zaherisp. n. from Yemen based on the worker caste. An illustrated key to the Arabian species of the genus and montage photos of all three species are provided.

The taxonomy of the genus Proceratium Roger is updated for the Afrotropical region. We give an overview of the genus in the region, provide an illustrated identification key to the three clades (Proceratium arnoldi, Proceratium stictum and Proceratium toschii clades) and revise the Proceratium arnoldi clade. Four new species from the Proceratium arnoldi clade are described as new: Proceratium sokoke sp. n. from Kenya, Proceratium carri sp. n. from Mozambique, and Proceratium nilo sp. n. and Proceratium sali sp. n. from Tanzania. In order to integrate the new species into the existing taxonomic system we present an illustrated identification key to distinguish the seven Afrotropical species of the Proceratium arnoldi clade. In addition, we provide accounts for all members of the Proceratium arnoldi clade including detailed descriptions, diagnoses, taxonomic discussions, distribution data and high quality montage images.

In this study we synonymise the genus Decamorium Forel under Tetramorium Mayr, revise the new T. decem species group by providing a diagnosis of the group, an illustrated identification key to species level, and worker-based species descriptions for all five species, which include diagnoses, discussions, images, and distribution maps. The following species are revised in this study: T. decem Forel, comb. r., T. raptor sp. n., T. uelense Santschi, comb. r., T. ultor Forel, comb. r., stat. r. & stat. n., and T. venator sp. n. In addition, we also designate lectotypes for T. decem, T. uelense, and T. ultor.

In this study we revise the taxonomy of the Tetramorium tortuosum species group members encountered in the Afrotropical region, which we have placed in its own subgroup: the T. capillosum species complex. We re-describe the two previously known species T. capillosum Bolton and T. tabarum Bolton, and describe the new species T. hecate sp. n. The geographic distribution of the three species appears to be restricted to the equatorial rainforests of Central Africa. We provide a diagnosis of the T. capillosum species complex, an illustrated identification key to species level, and worker-based species descriptions, which include diagnoses, discussions, high-quality montage images, and distribution maps. Furthermore, we discuss biogeography and composition of the globally distributed T. tortuosum group.

This study reviews the taxonomy of the ant genus Nesomyrmex Wheeler, 1910 in the Afrotropical region. Previous revisionary studies are discussed and four species groups are proposed on the basis of external morphology. The N. angulatus group contains seven species that are widely distributed throughout the whole Afrotropical region, with one species also occurring in the Palaearctic and Malagasy regions. The N. cataulacoides group is monotypic, with one morphologically bizarre species found in Equatorial rain forests. The N. humerosus group is also monotypic and occurs in East Africa. The last and by far most species-rich group is the N. simoni group that contains 17 species, all of which are endemic to South Africa. The four groups are defined for the first time for the region, and an illustrated identification key is provided. Furthermore, the N. angulatus group is more thoroughly reviewed. One new species from Mozambique is described, N. inhaca sp. nov., and species accounts for the other six are provided. Also, an illustrated identification key to the species of the N. angulatus group is presented.

In this study we provide an update to the taxonomy of the ant genus Tetramorium Mayr in Madagascar. We report the first record of the Tetramorium setigerum species group in Madagascar and describe the only Malagasy representative as Tetramorium cavernicola sp. n., which is known only from a cave in Ankarana. In addition, we provide an overview of the 19 proposed Malagasy species groups, and discuss their zoogeography and relationships to other groups and larger lineages within the hyper-diverse genus Tetramorium. At present, we recognise a highly unique Malagasy Tetramorium fauna with 113 species endemic to the island of Madagascar out of a total of 125 translating into an endemism rate of 93%. We hypothesise that this fauna is based on one or a few colonisation events from the Afrotropical region, with subsequent adaptive radiation in Madagascar. Furthermore, we present an updated and illustrated identification key to the Tetramorium species groups in the Malagasy region.

With 600 described species, the ant genusTetramoriumrepresents one of the most species-rich ant radiations. However, much work remains to fully document the hyperdiversity of this remarkable group.Tetramorium, while globally distributed, is thought to have originated in the Afrotropics and is particularly diverse in the Old World. Here, we focus attention on theTetramoriumfauna of India, a region of high biodiversity value and interest for conservation. We overviewTetramoriumdiversity in India by providing a species list, accounts of all species groups present, an illustrated identification key to IndianTetramoriumspecies groups and notes on the IndianTetramoriumfauna. Further, we describe two new species,Tetramorium krishnanisp. n. andTetramorium jarawasp. n. from the Andaman Islands archipelago and embed them into currently recognizedTetramorium tonganumandTetramorium inglebyispecies groups. We also provide illustrated species level keys for these groups. Along with detailed species descriptions and high-resolution montage images of types, we provide 3D cybertypes of the new species derived from X-ray micro-computed tomography.

We explore the potential of x-ray micro computed tomography (μCT) for the field of ant taxonomy by using it to enhance the descriptions of two remarkable new species of the ant genus Terataner: T. balrog sp. n. and T. nymeria sp. n.. We provide an illustrated worker-based species identification key for all species found on Madagascar, as well as detailed taxonomic descriptions, which include diagnoses, discussions, measurements, natural history data, high-quality montage images and distribution maps for both new species. In addition to conventional morphological examination, we have used virtual reconstructions based on volumetric μCT scanning data for the species descriptions. We also include 3D PDFs, still images of virtual reconstructions, and 3D rotation videos for both holotype workers and one paratype queen. The complete μCT datasets have been made available online (Dryad, https://datadryad.org) and represent the first cybertypes in ants (and insects). We discuss the potential of μCT scanning and critically assess the usefulness of cybertypes for ant taxonomy.

As with many other regions of the world, significant collecting, curation, and taxonomic efforts will be needed to complete the inventory of China’s ant fauna. This is especially true for the highly diverse tropical regions in the south of the country, where moist tropical forests harbor high species richness typical of the Southeast Asian region. We inventoried ants in the Xingshuangbanna prefecture, Yunnan, in June 2013, using a variety of methods including Winkler extraction and hand collection to sample ant diversity. We identified 213 species/morphospecies of ants from 10 subfamilies and 61 genera. After identification of 148 valid species of the 213 total species collected, 40 species represent new records for Yunnan province and 17 species are newly recorded for China. This increases the total number of named ant species in Yunnan and China to 447 and 951 respectively. The most common species collected were Brachyponera luteipes and Vollenhovia emeryi. Only one confirmed exotic species Strumigenys membranifera, was collected, although several others were potentially introduced by humans. These results highlight the high biodiversity value of the region, but also underscore how much work remains to fully document the native myrmecofauna.

This study presents a taxonomic update of the Tetramorium weitzeckeri species group. Tetramorium mpala sp. nov. is described from Laikipia, Kenya, and placed in the T. weitzeckeri species complex. In addition, we also provide an illustrated identification key to the three species complexes of the T. weitzeckeri species group, and an updated illustrated identification key to species of this species complex.

The alpha taxonomy of the ant genus Probolomyrmex in Madagascar is revised on the basis of the worker caste. Two new species are described: P. curculiformis sp. n. and P. zahamena sp. n. and the previously known P. tani is re-described. All three species are members of the P. greavesi species group. The species descriptions include diagnoses, taxonomic discussions, high quality montage images, and distribution maps. In addition, we provide an illustrated species level identification key.

The taxonomy of the Tetramorium naganum, T. plesiarum, T. schaufussii, and T. severini species groups are revised for the Malagasy region. A total of 31 species are treated, of which 22 are newly described and nine redescribed. This increases the richness of the hyper-diverse genus Tetramorium in the Malagasy region to 106 species, which makes it the most species-rich genus in the region. Twenty-nine of the treated species are endemic to Madagascar, one is endemic to the Comoros, and one species is found predominantly in Madagascar but also on the island of Reunion. The T. naganum species group contains five species, which are mainly distributed in the rainforests and montane rainforests of eastern and northern Madagascar: T. alperti sp. n., T. dalek sp. n., T. enkidu sp. n., T. gilgamesh sp. n., and T. naganum Bolton, 1979. The T.plesiarum species group holds five species: T. bressleri sp. n., T. hobbit sp. n., T. gollum sp. n., T. mars sp.n., and T. plesiarum Bolton, 1979. All five are arid-adapted species occurring in the southwest and west of Madagascar. The second-most species-rich group in the region is the T. schaufussii species group with 20 species, most of which inhabit rainforests or montane rainforests of eastern and northern Madagascar. This group includes two species complexes each containing ten species: the T. cognatum complex with the species T. aspis sp. n., T. camelliae sp. n., T. cognatum Bolton, 1979, T. freya sp. n., T. gladius sp. n., T.karthala sp. n., T. myrmidon sp. n., T. proximum Bolton, 1979, T. rumo sp. n., and T. tenuinode sp. n.; and the T. schaufussii complex with the species T. merina sp. n., T. monticola sp. n., T. nassonowii Forel, 1892 stat. n., T. obiwan sp. n., T. pseudogladius sp. n., T. rala sp. n., T. schaufussii Forel, 1891, T. sikorae Forel, 1892 (=T. latior (Santschi, 1926)), T. scutum sp. n., T. xanthogaster Santschi, 1911. The last group treated in this study is the T. severini species group, which contains only the species T. severini (Emery, 1895). This very conspicuous species is widely distributed in the rainforests and montane rainforests of eastern and northern Madagascar. All four groups are fully revised with group diagnoses, illustrated species-level identification keys, and detailed descriptions for all species that include multifocused montage images and distribution maps.

The taxonomy of the T. bessonii, T. bonibony, T. dysalum, T. marginatum, T. tsingy, and T. weitzeckeri species groups isrevised. A total of 33 species is treated, of which 27 are newly described and one is raised to species status. The T. weitzeckeri group contains the single species T. humbloti Forel, which is of Afrotropical origin and the only representativeof the group in the Malagasy region. The species T. bessonii Forel, T. dysalum Bolton, T. marginatum Forel, and T. stein- heili Forel, which were originally members of the T. weitzeckeri group, are now placed in other groups. Tetramorium bes- sonii is the core species of the T. bessonii group, which also contains the four newly described species T. artemis sp. n., T. malagasy sp. n., T. ryanphelanae sp. n., T. wardi sp. n., and T. orientale Forel stat. n., which was a junior synonym of T. bessonii but is now raised to species rank. The T. dysalum group is a moderately-sized group with ten species, of whichonly T. dysalum and T. steinheili were previously known; the other eight species are all newly described. The newly described species in this group are: T. ambatovy sp. n., T. macki sp. n., T. mallenseana sp. n., T. orc sp. n., T. robitika sp. n., T. sargina sp. n., T. yammer sp. n., and T. vohitra sp. n. A lectotype and several paralectotypes of T. steinheili are desig-nated. Tetramorium marginatum is the central species of the T. marginatum group, which also includes the five newly de-scribed species T. valky sp. n., T. hector sp. n., T. norvigi sp. n., T. shamshir sp. n., and T. silvicola sp. n. The T. bonibony and T. tsingy groups represent completely new groups that consist entirely of previously unknown, undescribed species.The first group holds the new species T. bonibony sp. n., T. kali sp. n., T. sada sp. n., T. nosybe sp. n., T. olana sp. n., T. popell sp. n., and T. trafo sp. n. and T. vony sp. n. The last group, the T. tsingy group, only contains the two species T. tyrion sp. n. and T. tsingy sp. n., both among the rarest Tetramorium species in Madagascar. All groups are fully revised withillustrated species-level identification keys, and all species are described/re-described and illustrated with high qualitymontage images. In addition, the current status of the Malagasy Tetramorium species groups is discussed and further modifications are proposed.

Tetramorium dysalum species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae well-developed and usually ending close to posterior head margin; anterior face of mesosoma not well-developed and no distinct anterodorsal angle present; mesosoma moderately to strongly marginated, dorsum sharply separated from lateral mesosoma; propodeal spines usually long to very long, elongate-triangular to spinose, and often thick, stout, and curved; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node in profile squamiform and anteroposteriorly compressed to high nodiform, in profile much higher than long, in dorsal view typically distinctly wider than long, anterior and posterior faces sometimes parallel, positions of anterodorsal and posterodorsal angles variable; postpetiole roughly rounded to weakly anteroposteriorly compressed; mandibular sculpturation variable; cephalic sculpturation distinct and predominantly longitudinally rugose; mesosoma with distinct sculpturation; at least one waist segment sculptured, sculpturation often very weak but always present; gaster generally unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; all dorsal surfaces of head, mesosoma, waist segments, and first gastral tergite with few to abundant standing hairs, never short, dense, and appressed; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on pages 60-62, {"references":["Bolton, B. (1979) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The genus Tetramorium Mayr in the Malagasy region and in the New World. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 38, 129 - 181.","Forel, A. (1892) Nouvelles especes de formicides de Madagascar. (Recoltees par M. Sikora). Annales de la Societe entomologique de Belgique, 36, 516 - 535."]}

Tetramorium obesum species group Diagnosis 12-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin with weak median impression; frontal carinae well-developed, ending between posterior eye margin and posterior head margin, curving down ventrally and forming the posterior scrobe margin; anterior face of mesosoma not developed and mesosomal profile strongly rounded; margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma present; propodeal spines medium-sized to long and spinose; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node nodiform; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibles usually sculptured; cephalic sculpturation well-developed, mostly reticulate-rugose, ground sculpturation of head generally faint or absent; mesosoma and waist segments reticulate-rugose; first gastral tergite unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; all dorsal surfaces with long, erect hairs, usually a mixture of simple and bifid hairs, less commonly including trifid hairs; sting appendage triangular. Comments Tetramorium lanuginosum is the only member of the T. obesum group that is present in the Malagasy zoogeographic region, and, it is another well-known and highly successful tramp species (Bolton, 1976; Wetterer, 2010). The presence of branched hairs distinguishes T. lanuginosum from all other Malagasy Tetramorium species., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 27, {"references":["Bolton, B. (1976) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Constituent genera, review of smaller genera and revision of Triglyphothrix Forel. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 34, 281 - 379.","Wetterer, J. K. (2010) Worldwide spread of the wooly ant, Tetramorium lanuginosum (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecological News, 13, 81 - 88."]}

Tetramorium lanuginosum Mayr, 1870 (Figure 18) Tetramorium lanuginosum Mayr, 1870:972. Holotype worker, INDONESIA, Java, Batavia (NMW) [examined]. [Combination in Triglyphothrix by Emery, 1891:4; in Tetramorium by Bolton, 1985:247]. Tetramorium obesum r. striatidens Emery, 1889:501. Syntype workers, BURMA, Bhamo, VII.1886 (L. Fea) (MHNG) [examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix striatidens var. laevidens Forel, 1900:284. Syntype workers, MEXICO (MHNG) [examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix striatidens r. australis Forel, 1902a:449. Syntype workers, queens, AUSTRALIA, Queensland, Mackay (Turner) (MHNG; MCZ) [partly examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix striatidens r. orissana Forel, 1902b:239. Syntype workers, INDIA, Orissa (Taylor) (MHNG) [examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix striatidens var. felix Forel, 1912:160. Syntype workers, SEYCHELLES, Felicite, Silhoutte, Mare aux Cochons, 1908 (H. Scott) (MHNG; BMNH) [examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix ceramensis Stitz, 1912:506. Holotype worker, INDONESIA, Seram Island (holotype location unknown). [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix striatidens var. flavescens Wheeler, W.M., 1929:55. Syntype workers, SINGAPORE, Johore, 2.II.1925 (F. Silvestri) (MCZ) [not examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:350; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix mauricei Donisthorpe, 1946:778. Holotype worker, MAURITIUS, Rose Hill, 1942 (R. Mamet) (BMNH) [examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:351; here confirmed]. Triglyphothrix tricolor Donisthorpe 1948:136. Paratype workers, queens, NEW GUINEA, Maffin Bay, 17. & 20.VI.1944 (E.S. Ross) (BMNH, CASC) [examined]. [Synonymy with lanuginosum by Bolton, 1976:351; here confirmed]., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 27, {"references":["Mayr, G. (1870) Neue Formiciden. Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 20, 939 - 996.","Bolton, B. (1985) The ant genus Triglyphothrix Forel a synonym of Tetramorium Mayr. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Journal of Natural History, 19, 243 - 248.","Emery, C. (1889) Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e regioni vicine. XX. Formiche di Birmania e del Tenasserim raccolte da Leonardo Fea (1885 - 87). Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria (Genova), 7, 485 - 520.","Bolton, B. (1976) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Constituent genera, review of smaller genera and revision of Triglyphothrix Forel. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 34, 281 - 379.","Forel, A. (1900) Fourmis du Japon. Nids en toile. Strongylognathus Huberi et voisins. Fourmiliere triple. Cyphomyrmex Wheeleri. Fourmis importees. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft, 10, 267 - 287.","Forel, A. (1902 a) Fourmis nouvelles d'Australie. Rev. Suisse Zool., 10, 405 - 548.","Forel, A. (1902 b) Myrmicinae nouveaux de l'Inde et de Ceylan. Revue Suisse Zoologie, 10, 165 - 249.","Forel, A. (1912) The Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean in 1905, under the leadership of Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner, M. A. Volume 4, No. 11. Fourmis des Seychelles et des Aldabras, recues de M. Hugh Scott. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology, 2, 159 - 167.","Stitz, H. (1912) Ameisen aus Ceram und Neu-Guinea. Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin, 1912, 498 - 514.","Donisthorpe, H. S. J. K. (1946) New species of ants (Hym., Formicidae) from the island of Mauritius. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 11, 776 - 782.","Donisthorpe, H. S. J. K. (1948) A fourth installment of the Ross Collection of ants from New Guinea. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 12, 131 - 143."]}

Tetramorium schaufussii species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae variable; anterior face of mesosoma only weakly developed and rounding onto the dorsum; margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma weak; propodeal spines triangular and short to absent; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node in profile rounded high nodiform, rarely weakly antero-posteriorly compressed, anterior and posterior faces of the node roughly parallel, and all sides rounding smoothly onto the dorsal face without distinct angles, in profile much higher than long, in dorsal view mostly as wide as long; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibles usually unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; cephalic sculpturation distinct and predominantly longitudinally rugose; mesosoma with distinct sculpturation; waist segments and gaster unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; all dorsal surfaces of head, mesosoma, and waist segments with sparse to abundant long, fine hairs; first gastral tergite usually with scattered to dense, appressed to decumbent pubescence, rarely absent; often pubescence mixed with standing medium-sized pilosity; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on pages 56-58, {"references":["Santschi, F. (1911) Nouvelles fourmis de Madagascar. Revue Suisse Zoologie, 19, 117 - 134.","Bolton, B. (1979) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The genus Tetramorium Mayr in the Malagasy region and in the New World. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 38, 129 - 181."]}

Tetramorium pacificum Mayr, 1870 (Figure 17) Tetramorium pacificum Mayr, 1870:976. Syntype workers, queen, TONGA, Tongatabu (NMW, BMNH) [examined]. Tetramorium pacificum var. subscabrum Emery, 1893:246. Syntype workers, SRI LANKA, Kandy and Colombo (E. Simon) (MHNG) [examined]. [Subspecies of Tetramorium pacificum by Wheeler, W.M. 1909:340; Synonymy with Tetramorium pacificum by Bolton 1977:102; here confirmed]., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 24, {"references":["Mayr, G. (1870) Neue Formiciden. Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 20, 939 - 996.","Emery, C. (1893) Voyage de M. E. Simon a l'ile de Ceylan (janvier - fevrier 1892). 3 e Memoire. Formicides. Annales de la Societe Entomologique de France, 62, 239 - 258.","Bolton, B. (1977) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The genus Tetramorium Mayr in the Oriental and Indo-Australian regions, and in Australia. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 36, 67 - 151."]}

Tetramorium ranarum species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae variably developed, ending about halfway between posterior eye margin and posterior head margin, often curving down ventrally and forming posterior margin, and sometimes even ventral margins, of antennal scrobes; anterior face of mesosoma only weakly developed; margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma weak; propodeal spines short to medium-sized, triangular to elongate-triangular; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node rectangular nodiform with usually well-defined angles, in profile roughly as high as or weakly higher than long, in dorsal view typically as wide as long, often antero- and posterodorsal angles well-developed and about same height, sometimes anterodorsal angle better developed and higher situated than less angulate, more rounded posterodorsal angle, in the latter case dorsum usually tapering weakly backwards posteriorly; postpetiole usually roughly rounded; mandibles usually sculptured; cephalic sculpturation distinct and predominantly longitudinally rugose; mesosoma and waist segments with distinct sculpturation, postpetiole sometimes with weak sculpturation only; gaster almost always unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; dorsal surfaces of head, mesosoma, waist segments, and first gastral tergite generally with abundant, short to medium-sized, appressed to erect hairs, pilosity on first gastral tergite sometimes reduced; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on pages 65-67, {"references":["Forel, A. (1895) Quelques fourmis du centre de Madagascar. Annales de la Societe entomologique de Belgique, 39, 485 - 488.","Bolton, B. (1979) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The genus Tetramorium Mayr in the Malagasy region and in the New World. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 38, 129 - 181."]}

Tetramorium bicarinatum species group Diagnosis 12-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin with distinct median impression; frontal carinae well-developed, ending shortly before or reaching posterior head margin; anterior face of mesosoma only weakly developed and rounding onto the dorsum; margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma weak; propodeal spines mediumsized to long and spinose; propodeal lobes triangular to elongate-triangular, acute, and short to medium-sized; petiolar node nodiform, longer than high or as long as high, in two species posterodorsal angle higher situated than anterodorsal; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibular sculpturation variable; cephalic sculpturation strongly developed, mostly reticulate-rugose, between frontal carinae close to posterior clypeus more rugose, ground sculpturation of head generally faint or absent; mesosoma and waist segments reticulate-rugose; first gastral tergite in some species with basigastral costulae, rest of the gaster unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; all dorsal surfaces with long, erect hairs; sting appendage triangular., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 17

Tetramorium tortuosum species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae well-developed and usually running to posterior head margin; anterior face of mesosoma weakly developed; margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma variably developed; propodeal spines always long to very long, and spinose; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node rectangular nodiform to clublike, antero- and posterodorsal angles usually well-defined, usually longer than high and longer than wide, sometimes roughly as long as high but then longer than wide; postpetiole usually roughly rounded; mandibles strongly sculptured in most species; cephalic sculpturation distinct and predominantly longitudinally rugose; mesosoma and waist segments with distinct sculpturation; gaster generally unsculptured and smooth, but sculpturation present in a few species; in most species all dorsal surfaces of head, mesosoma, waist segments and first gastral tergite with abundant long, standing hairs, never short, dense, and appressed; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 62

Tetramorium bessonii species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae well-developed and usually ending between posterior eye margin and posterior head margin; anterior face of mesosoma not well-developed and no distinct anterodorsal angle present; no distinct margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma, sides of mesosoma smoothly rounding onto dorsum; propodeal spines medium-sized to long, elongate-triangular to spinose; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node usually moderately squamiform and anteroposteriorly compressed to triangular or cuneiform, in profile much higher than long, in dorsal view typically distinctly wider than long, anterior and posterior faces not parallel, anterodorsal angle generally better developed than posterodorsal angle, and rarely at about same height, dorsum generally tapering strongly backwards; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibles generally sculptured; cephalic sculpturation to large extent reduced; mesosoma usually unsculptured, in one species superficial, weak sculpturation present; waist segments and gaster unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; pilosity on dorsal surfaces of head, mesosoma, and waist segments variable; first gastral tergite either without any standing hairs at all, only with short to relatively long, appressed to decumbent pubescence, or with medium-sized appressed to decumbent pubescence intermixed with relatively few erect hairs; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 49

Tetramorium insolens (Smith, F., 1861) (Figure 16) Myrmica insolens Smith, F., 1861:47. Holotype queen, INDONESIA, Sulawesi, Menado (A.R. Wallace) (OUMNH) [examined]. Tetramorium insolens (Smith, F., 1861) Donisthorpe, 1932:468. Tetramorium guineense var. macra Emery, 1914:415. Syntype workers, NEW CALEDONIA, Kon��, 8.VIII.1911, (Sarasin & Roux) (NHMB) [examined]. [Synonymy with Tetramorium insolens by Bolton 1977:99; here confirmed]. Tetramorium pacificum var. wilsoni Mann, 1921:460. Syntype workers, FIJI ISLAND, Viti Levu, Nausori, Waiyanitu, 1915- 1916 (W.M. Mann) (MCZ) [not examined]. [Raised to species by Taylor, 1967:1093; Synonymy with Tetramorium insolens by Bolton 1977:99; here confirmed]. Tetramorium melanogyna var. pallidiventre Wheeler, W.M., 1934:177. Holotype worker, SOLOMON ISLANDS, NW end of Bellona Island, 19.VI.1933 (M. Willows) (CASC: CASTYPE05027) [examined]. [Synonymy with Tetramorium insolens by Bolton 1977:99; here confirmed]., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 22, {"references":["Emery, C. (1914) Les fourmis de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et des iles Loyalty. In: Sarasin, F. & Roux, J. (Eds), Nova Caledonia. Zoologie. 1, Wiesbaden, pp. 393 - 437.","Bolton, B. (1977) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The genus Tetramorium Mayr in the Oriental and Indo-Australian regions, and in Australia. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 36, 67 - 151.","Mann, W. M. (1921) The ants of the Fiji Islands. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard College, 64, 401 - 499."]}

Tetramorium severini species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae developed and usually ending between posterior eye margin and posterior head margin; anterior face of mesosoma only weakly developed and rounding onto the dorsum; margination between lateral and dorsal mesosoma weak; propodeal spines very long and spinose; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node in profile rounded high nodiform, anterior and posterior faces of the node roughly parallel, and all sides rounding smoothly onto the dorsal face without distinct angles, in profile much higher than long, in dorsal view about as wide as long; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibles usually unsculptured; cephalic sculpturation distinct and predominantly longitudinally rugose; mesosoma with weak sculpturation; waist segments and gaster unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; cephalic dorsum with abundant dorsal long, fine hairs, mesosoma and waist segments with very few hairs, first gastral tergite without pilosity, only very sparse, short pubescence present; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 58

Tetramorium mahafaly Hita Garcia & Fisher sp. n. (Figure 19) Holotype worker, MADAGASCAR, Prov. Toliara, Mahafaly Plateau, 6.2 km 74�� ENE Tampolo, 24�� 39' S, 43�� 69' E, 80 m, BLF05780, 21.-25.II.2002 (B.L. Fisher et al.) (CASC: CASENT0448984). Paratypes, 59 workers with same data as holotype (BMNH: CASENT0448977; CASC: CASENT0448972, CASENT0448973, CASENT0448974, CASENT0448976, CASENT0448978, CASENT0448979, CASENT0448980, CASENT0448981, CASENT0448982, CASENT0448985, CASENT0448986, CASENT0448989, CASENT0448990, CASENT0448991, CASENT0448992, CASENT0448993, CASENT0448994, CASENT0448995, CASENT0448996, CASENT0448997, CASENT0448998, CASENT0449000; MNHG: CASENT0448983)., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 31

Tetramorium sericeiventre species group Diagnosis 12-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin entire and without any median impression; lateral clypeus characteristically modified, in full-face view distinctly raised in front of antennal condyle and projecting forward as a tooth or denticle; frontal carinae weakly developed to absent; anterior face of mesosoma weakly developed, margination between dorsal and lateral mesosoma weak to absent; propodeal spines medium-sized; propodeal lobes elongate-triangular and roughly of same length as propodeal spines; petiolar node rectangular nodiform, longer than high to as long as high and longer than wide to as long as wide; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibles strongly sculptured; sculpturation of head, mesosoma, and waist segments highly variable, usually reticulaterugose with reticulate-punctulate ground sculpture providing granular appearance, but in one species all possible reductions of this sculpturation observable; first gastral tergite usually sculptured but to variable extent; all dorsal surfaces with sparse to moderately abundant standing pilosity; sting appendage triangular., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 31

Tetramorium marginatum species group Diagnosis Eleven-segmented antennae; anterior clypeal margin medially impressed; frontal carinae well-developed and usually ending between posterior eye margin and posterior head margin; anterior face of mesosoma not well-developed and no distinct anterodorsal angle present; mesosoma moderately to strongly marginated, dorsum usually sharply separated from lateral mesosoma; propodeal spines long to extremely long, and spinose; propodeal lobes triangular and short; petiolar node in profile triangular or cuneiform, anteroposteriorly compressed dorsally, in profile much higher than long, in dorsal view typically distinctly wider than long and transverse, anterior and posterior faces not parallel, anterodorsal angle much better developed and higher situated than posterodorsal angle, dorsum usually tapering strongly backwards posteriorly; postpetiole roughly rounded; mandibular sculpturation usually strongly to completely reduced; cephalic sculpturation to a large extent reduced and absent; mesosoma in most species completely unsculptured, in two species weak irregular longitudinal rugae/rugulae present; waist segments and gaster unsculptured, smooth, and shiny; all dorsal surfaces of head, mesosoma, waist segments and first gastral tergite with few to relatively abundant standing hairs, never short, dense, and appressed; sting appendage spatulate., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on pages 52-54, {"references":["Forel, A. (1895) Quelques fourmis du centre de Madagascar. Annales de la Societe entomologique de Belgique, 39, 485 - 488."]}

Tetramorium tosii Emery, 1899 (Figure 24) Tetramorium tosii Emery, 1899:284. Syntype workers, MADAGASCAR, Baie d' Antongil, (Mocquerys) (MHNG) [examined]., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 45, {"references":["Emery, C. (1899) Formiche di Madagascar raccolte dal Sig. A. Mocquerys nei pressi della Baia di Antongil (1897 - 1898). Bollettino della Societa Entomologica Italiana, 31, 263 - 290."]}

Tetramorium tantillum Bolton, 1979 (Figure 23) Tetramorium tantillum Bolton, 1979:152. Holotype worker, MADAGASCAR, Mangabe Island, Antongil Bay, 19.II.1977, primary rain forest, AB 42 litter, (W. L. & D. E. Brown) (MCZ) [not examined]. Paratypes, 3 workers with same data as holotype (MCZ, BMNH) [partly examined]., Published as part of Francisco Hita Garcia, T. T. & Fisher, Brian L., 2011, 3039, pp. 1-72 in Zootaxa 3039 on page 42, {"references":["Bolton, B. (1979) The ant tribe Tetramoriini (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). The genus Tetramorium Mayr in the Malagasy region and in the New World. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology, 38, 129 - 181."]}

This paper is a starting point towards a much needed comprehensive taxonomic treatment of the genus Pheidole in theAfrotropical region. Despite its hyperdiversity, the taxonomy of this globally distributed ant genus is limited to importantrevisions for the New World and several Asian faunas. However, Pheidole of the Afrotropical zoogeographic region hasnever been revised. The most recent Afrotropical Pheidole species descriptions are fifty years old and many are consider-ably older. Identification keys are not available and many species descriptions are of limited diagnostic value. This callsfor a series of taxonomic revisions in order to resolve the complicated taxonomic situation for the complete Afrotropical Pheidole fauna. In this paper the following preliminary morphological species groups for the Afrotropical region are de-fined: P. aurivillii group, P. excellens group, P. megacephala group, P. nigeriensis group, and P. speculifera group. We also establish and revise the P. pulchella group, which currently contains eleven species, of which seven are new. The four spe-cies described prior to this study are: P. pulchella Santschi, P. dea Santschi, P. nimba Bernard, and P. batrachorum Wheeler stat. rev., which is removed from synonymy under P. dea and regains species status. The following new synonymy isproposed (senior synonym listed first): P. pulchella Santschi = P. pulchella achantella Santschi. The following seven spe-cies are described as new: P. christinae sp. n., P. darwini, sp. n., P. glabrella sp. n., P. heliosa sp. n., P. rebeccae sp. n., P. semidea sp. n. and P. setosa, sp. n. An illustrated key combining the minor and major worker subcastes is presented.

The globally distributed ant genus Tetramorium Mayr is especially diverse in the Afrotropical, Oriental, and Indo-Australian regions, while the Malagasy fauna, by contrast, seemed to be comparatively species-poor. However, recent ant inventories in Madagascar and its surrounding island systems have generated an immense amount of new material. As a result, there is now a great need of an updated taxonomic revision for the genus Tetramorium in this region. The present study represents an introduction to the genus, and treats the species groups encountered in the Malagasy region. All former species groups were redefined, and several new groups were established, in order to accommodate the substantial amount of new material. We propose 14 species groups of Tetramorium for this region. Morphological boundaries between these groups and their biogeographic affinities are discussed, and an illustrated identification key to species groups is provided. Diagnoses of all species groups are presented, as well as images of typical group members. Additionally, the species level taxonomy of the T. bicarinatum, T. obesum, T. sericeiventre and T. tosii species groups is revised with descriptions and images of all species, and an identification key to the species of the T. bicarinatum group is provided. No nomenclatorial changes are documented from the T. bicarinatum, T. obesum, and T. tosii groups. However, within the T. sericeiventre species group, one new species, T. mahafaly sp. n., is described and T. quadrispinosum Emery, 1886 and all its former synonyms are proposed as junior synonyms of T. sericeiventre Emery, 1877. At present, there are still 39 valid species of Tetramorium for the Malagasy region, but this number is expected to increase significantly with upcoming taxonomic revisions of the species groups not revised in this study.

The taxonomy of the Tetramorium weitzeckeri species group is revised for the Afrotropical zoogeographic region. The revision is based on morphology and morphometrics of the worker caste. Twenty six species are recognised of which twelve are described as new: Tetramorium bendai sp. n., Tetramorium boltoni sp. n., Tetramorium intermedium sp. n., Tetramorium kakamega sp. n., Tetramorium mkomazi sp. n., Tetramorium philippwagneri sp. n., Tetramorium renae . n., Tetramorium robertsoni sp. n., Tetramorium rubrum sp. n., Tetramorium susannae sp. n., Tetramorium tanaense sp. n., and Tetramorium trirugosum sp. n.. Tetramorium akengense (Wheeler, W.M. 1922) is revived from synonymy and Tetramorium tersum Santschi, Tetramorium ( Xiphomyrmex ) kivuense Stitz, and Xiphmyrmex kivuense st. atrinodis Santschi are proposed as junior synonyms of Tetramorium edouardi Forel. All other earlier synonymisations are confirmed here. The species group is redefined and subdivided into three species complexes which are defined and discussed: the Tetramorium edouardi complex (9 species), the Tetramorium muralti complex (8 species), and the Tetramorium weitzeckeri complex (9 species). An illustrated identification key to the Afrotropical species is presented, and for each species diagnosis, description, and taxonomic discussion are provided. Biogeography and important morphological characters of diagnostic value are discussed.