Search

The widespread use of rubble-mound (RM) breakwaters along coasts across the world highlights the importance of understanding their behavior during natural disasters such as tsunamis. The failure of these breakwaters during tsunamis can have far-reaching consequences, potentially causing damage to coastal infrastructure and loss of life. Many breakwaters failed during past tsunamis. Despite this, studies on the behavior of RM breakwaters during tsunamis are minimal. The present study thus attempts to elucidate the behavior of RM breakwater subjected to a tsunami. Furthermore, efforts were made to develop effective countermeasures that can safeguard the breakwater against tsunamis. To the end, a novel technique of using geogrids for reinforcing the RM is proposed. This study could be a pioneering application of geogrids as reinforcing elements in RM breakwaters to mitigate damages from tsunamis. Geogrid layers are provided on both the seaside and harborside to mitigate tsunami-induced damage to the breakwater. In addition, a crown wall (with shear keys) is also introduced to prevent the scouring of the crest and sheet piles from preventing excess seepage through the seabed. Physical model tests, analytical studies and numerical simulations were carried out to assess the performance of the proposed countermeasures by comparing it with the behavior of conventional RM breakwater during the tsunami. The tsunamis can overflow the breakwater, potentially exceeding its design limits. Hence, provision was made in the study for overflow, where the breakwater may overflow by the tsunami. It was observed that excess seepage through the body of the breakwater and the scouring of the crest were significant factors that led to the failure of RM breakwaters under tsunami overflow. A novel reinforced model was proposed to address these issues. This model effectively withstood tsunami-induced damages without significant deformations, demonstrating its potential as a reliable solution. In the past, tsunamis have caused significant damage to several rubble-mound breakwaters, leading to devastating impacts on coastal communities. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami are two well-known examples of the destructive power of tsunamis. A significant number of breakwaters across the globe are of the rubble-mound type, and finding a practical solution to make them resilient against tsunamis could protect many coasts against future tsunamis. This study proposes novel reinforcing techniques to make the rubble-mound breakwater tsunami-resilient. These techniques include adding geogrid layers on either side, providing a crown wall (with shear key) at the top, and inserting two sheet piles into the seabed at either end of the rubble-mound breakwater. Perhaps, this is the first-time geogrids were used on rubble-mound breakwaters to mitigate tsunami-induced damages. The reinforcing elements were chosen for their practicality in the real world. These elements can be practically applied to make existing and future breakwaters tsunami resilient. The study found that the proposed reinforced model, particularly Reinforced model III, remained intact without significant deformation even under a 15-m high tsunami. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite significant research on the effects of stress on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, questions remain regarding long-term impacts of large-scale stressors. Leveraging data on exposure to an unanticipated major natural disaster, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, we provide causal evidence of its imprint on hair cortisol levels fourteen years later. Data are drawn from the Study of the Tsunami Aftermath and Recovery, a population-representative longitudinal study of tsunami survivors who were living along the coast of Aceh, Indonesia, when the tsunami hit. Annual rounds of data, collected before, the year after and 2 y after the disaster provide detailed information about tsunami exposures and self-reported symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Hair samples collected 14 y after the tsunami from a sample of adult participants provide measures of cortisol levels, integrated over several months. Hair cortisol concentrations are substantially and significantly lower among females who were living, at the time of the tsunami, in communities directly damaged by the tsunami, in comparison with similar females living in other, nearby communities. Differences among males are small and not significant. Cortisol concentrations are lowest among those females living in damaged communities who reported elevated post-traumatic stress symptoms persistently for two years after the tsunami, indicating that the negative effects of exposure were largest for them. Low cortisol is also associated with contemporaneous reports of poor self-rated general and psychosocial health. Taken together, the evidence points to dysregulation in the HPA axis and "burnout" among these females fourteen years after exposure to the disaster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extreme surges and waves generated in tsunamis can cause devastating damages to coastal infrastructures and threaten the intactness of coastal communities. After the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, extensive physical experiments and numerical simulations have been conducted to understand the wave attenuation of tsunami waves due to coastal forests. Nearly all prior works used solitary waves as the tsunami wave model, but the spatial-temporal scales of realistic tsunamis differ drastically from that of solitary waves in both wave period and wavelength. More recent work has questioned the applicability of solitary waves and been looking towards more realistic tsunami wave models. Therefore, aiming to achieve more realistic and accurate results, this study will use a parameterized tsunami-like wave based on wave observations during the 2011 Japan tsunami to study the wave attenuation of a tsunami wave by emergent rigid vegetation. This study uses a high-resolution numerical wave tank based on the non-hydrostatic wave model (NHWAVE). This work examines effects of prominent factors, such as wave height, water depth, vegetation density and width, on the wave attenuation efficiency of emergent rigid vegetation. Results indicate that the vegetation patch can dissipate a considerable amount of the total wave energy of the tsunami-like wave. However, the tsunami-like wave has a higher total wave energy, but also a lower wave energy dissipation rate. Results show that using a solitary instead of a tsunami-like wave profile can overestimate the wave attenuation efficiency of the coastal forest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has experienced several tsunamis triggered by seismic and non-seismic (i.e., landslides) sources. These events damaged or destroyed coastal buildings and infrastructure and caused considerable loss of life. Based on the Global Earthquake Model (GEM) guidelines, this study assesses the empirical tsunami fragility to the buildings inventory of the 2018 Sunda Strait, 2018 Sulawesi–Palu, and 2004 Indian Ocean (Khao Lak–Phuket, Thailand) tsunamis. Fragility curves represent the impact of tsunami characteristics on structural components and express the likelihood of a structure reaching or exceeding a damage state in response to a tsunami intensity measure. The Sunda Strait and Sulawesi–Palu tsunamis are uncommon events still poorly understood compared to the Indian Ocean tsunami (IOT), and their post-tsunami databases include only flow depth values. Using the TUNAMI two-layer model, we thus reproduce the flow depth, the flow velocity, and the hydrodynamic force of these two tsunamis for the first time. The flow depth is found to be the best descriptor of tsunami damage for both events. Accordingly, the building fragility curves for complete damage reveal that (i) in Khao Lak–Phuket, the buildings affected by the IOT sustained more damage than the Sunda Strait tsunami, characterized by shorter wave periods, and (ii) the buildings performed better in Khao Lak–Phuket than in Banda Aceh (Indonesia). Although the IOT affected both locations, ground motions were recorded in the city of Banda Aceh, and buildings could have been seismically damaged prior to the tsunami's arrival, and (iii) the buildings of Palu City exposed to the Sulawesi–Palu tsunami were more susceptible to complete damage than the ones affected by the IOT, in Banda Aceh, between 0 and 2 m flow depth. Similar to the Banda Aceh case, the Sulawesi–Palu tsunami load may not be the only cause of structural destruction. The buildings' susceptibility to tsunami damage in the waterfront of Palu City could have been enhanced by liquefaction events triggered by the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

April Le Quéré, P.; Nistor, I., and Mohammadian, M., 2021. Effect of lateral spacing of structures on tsunami-induced scour. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(4), 813–826. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Tsunamis are a devastating force, as seen by the extreme tsunamis that struck the Indian and Pacific Oceans over the past two decades: the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the 2010 Chile Tsunami, and the 2011 Tohoku Japan Tsunami. In those events, flood-induced scouring was found to be an important phenomenon that often led to infrastructure damage. Past research has focused on scouring around single columns and other isolated horizontal structures to attempt to understand the complex processes characterizing this phenomenon. However, given that coastal cities often comprise complex arrangements of multiple structures, often crammed, tsunami inundation flow often finds concentrated paths in between such structures; these flow concentrations increase the resulting scouring. This research is an attempt to inform the scientific community on the potential of augmented scour attributable to flow concentration that is due to the lateral spacing of structures and to compare it with nonconcentrated flow-induced scour. The authors employed the FLOW-3D numerical model for this study. This model was first calibrated using a physical model experiment performed in the dam break flume of the University of Ottawa, Canada. Results from this study demonstrate that flow concentration due to the lateral spacing of structures leads to greater scouring than for the case of an isolated structure and that the magnitude of the scour, for most cases studied, was larger than what is prescribed by the latest building codes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last fifteen years, tsunami science has progressed at a rapid pace. Three major tsunamis: The Indian Ocean in 2004, the 2011 Tohoku tsunami, and the 2018 Palu tsunami were significant landmarks in the history of tsunami science. All the three tsunamis, as mentioned, suffered from either no warning or poor reception of the alerts issued. Various lessons learned, consequent numerical models proposed, post-2004 tsunami damage findings manifested into solutions. However, the misperceived solutions led to a disastrous impact of the 2011 Tohoku event. In the following years, numerous improvements in warning systems and community preparedness frameworks were proposed and implemented. The contributions and new findings have added multi-fold advancements to tsunami science progress. Later, the 2018 Palu tsunami happened and again led to a massive loss of life and property. The warning systems and community seemed un-prepared for this non-seismic tsunami. A significant change is to take place in tsunami science practices and solutions. The 2018 tsunami is one of the most discussed and researched events concerning the palaeotsunami records, damage assessment, and source findings. In the new era, using machine learning and deep learning prevails in all the fields related to tsunami science. This article presents a complete 15-year bibliometric analysis of tsunami research from Scopus and Web of Science (WoS). The review of majorly cited documents in the form of a progressing storyline has highlighted the need for multidisciplinary research to design and propose practical solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most tsunamis occur after large submarine earthquakes, particularly in the Pacific Ocean. However, following the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, tsunami hazard awareness was significantly raised at the global scale, and warning systems were developed in many other regions, where large tsunamis are rarer but can also produce large catastrophes. Here we first review the basic physics of a tsunami, from its triggering to its coastal impact, and we offer a review of the geophysical and sea-level data that can describe the various processes operating during a tsunami. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data have a key role in better describing the ground deformation following a tsunamigenic earthquake close to the coast. The GNSS observations complement seismological data to constrain the rupture model rapidly and robustly. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) also contributes to this field, as well as optical imagery, relevant to monitoring elevation changes following subaerial landslides. The observation of the sea-level variations, in the near field and during the propagation across the ocean, can also increasingly benefit from GNSS data (from GNSS buoys) and from robust satellite communication: pressure gauges anchored on the seafloor in the deep ocean contribute to warning systems only by data continuously transmitted through satellites. The sounding of ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC) variations through GNSS, altimetry, or a ground-based airglow camera, is a promising way to record tsunami initiation and propagation indirectly. Finally, GNSS, optical and SAR imagery are essential to map and quantify the damage following tsunami flooding. Satellite data are expected to contribute more to operational systems in the future provided they are reliably available and analysed in real time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed tsunami fragility functions using three sources of damage data from the 2018 Sulawesi tsunami at Palu Bay in Indonesia obtained from (i) field survey data (FS), (ii) a visual interpretation of optical satellite images (VI), and (iii) a machine learning and remote sensing approach utilized on multisensor and multitemporal satellite images (MLRS). Tsunami fragility functions are cumulative distribution functions that express the probability of a structure reaching or exceeding a particular damage state in response to a specific tsunami intensity measure, in this case obtained from the interpolation of multiple surveyed points of tsunami flow depth. We observed that the FS approach led to a more consistent function than that of the VI and MLRS methods. In particular, an initial damage probability observed at zero inundation depth in the latter two methods revealed the effects of misclassifications on tsunami fragility functions derived from VI data; however, it also highlighted the remarkable advantages of MLRS methods. The reasons and insights used to overcome such limitations are discussed together with the pros and cons of each method. The results show that the tsunami damage observed in the 2018 Sulawesi event in Indonesia, expressed in the fragility function developed herein, is similar in shape to the function developed after the 1993 Hokkaido Nansei-oki tsunami, albeit with a slightly lower damage probability between zero-to-five-meter inundation depths. On the other hand, in comparison with the fragility function developed after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Banda Aceh, the characteristics of Palu structures exhibit higher fragility in response to tsunamis. The two-meter inundation depth exhibited nearly 20% probability of damage in the case of Banda Aceh, while the probability of damage was close to 70% at the same depth in Palu. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to analyze and compare the transportation feasibility of the following three tsunami evacuation support devices that carry vulnerable persons: (A) a rollator, (B) a transport chair, and (C) a wheelchair. Each of these supports was examined for its feasibility during transit along a steep slope, gentle slope, and flat land. The results indicated that the rollator was the most feasible tool, followed by the transport chair and the wheelchair; however, having the assistance of support personnel enabled the victims to flee faster and more effectively. Furthermore, the findings indicate that although wheelchairs are the most effective in evacuating vulnerable persons, all the studied tools can provide assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Present investigations utilize two-dimensional flow modelling abilities of (HEC-RAS) Hydrologic Engineering Centres River Analysis System for flood inundation mapping in the downstream area of Purna basin, exposed to recurrent flooding. Floods are natural disasters, which cause loss of life and damages to properties and nature. 2-D Hydrodynamic model is utilized to assess geomorphic viability of floods in downstream side of Purna basin. In this research study, downstream region geometry of Purna river basin, the flood plain of the study area and historical observed flood data of unsteady flow have been used to develop the 2-D hydrodynamic model. For analysis of flooding, a reach of 20 km of river situated downstream of Purna River basin has been considered. Point-by-point fundamental terrain data is taken from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of 30-meter resolution image and is utilized to produce the (2D) two-dimensional flow area and stream geometries. River flow information like daily discharge during rainy months, slope available along the river reach from Mahuva gauging station close to Navsari city is utilized for the unsteady flow modeling. Depth of water, velocity distribution and water surface height obtained after 2D flow simulation are utilized to decide the degree of flooding. RAS-mapper is an effective tool in HEC-RAS, which can be utilized for inundation of research area. For unsteady flow analysis, each time step was done based on inflow hydrograph using RAS mapper tool in HEC-RAS, which gives the spatial distribution of the river flow. The outcomes from this research examination can be utilized for disaster management, flood management, early warning system by authorities in addition to infrastructure growth decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 22 December 2018, a tsunami was generated from the Mount Anak Krakatau area that was caused by volcanic flank failures. The tsunami had severe impacts on the western coast of Banten and the southern coasts of Lampung in Indonesia. A series of surveys to measure the impacts of the tsunami was started 3 d after the tsunami and lasted for 10 d. Immediate investigations allowed the collection of relatively authentic images of the tsunami impacts before the clearing process started. This article investigates the impacts of the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami on the affected areas and presents an analysis of the impacts of pure hydrodynamic tsunami forces on buildings. Impacts of the tsunami were expected to exhibit different characteristics than those found following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Aceh. Data were collected from 117 flow depths along the Banten and Lampung coasts. Furthermore, 98 buildings or houses were assessed for damage. Results of this study revealed that the flow depths were higher in Banten than in Lampung. Directions of the tsunami arrays created by the complex bathymetry around the strait caused these differences. Tsunami-induced damage to buildings was mostly the result of impact forces and drag forces. Damping forces could not be associated with the damage. The tsunami warning system in Indonesia should be extended to anticipate non-seismic tsunamis, such as landslides and volcanic processes driven by tsunamis. The lack of a tsunami warning during the first few minutes after the generation of the first wave led to a significant number of human casualties in both of the affected areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Impacts of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami to Malaysia were diverse and significant. • Majority of Malaysia's at-risk coastline are still highly vulnerable. • Tourism, fishing and aquaculture industries were heavily affected. • Impacts of the tsunami towards local ecosystem need better understanding. • Research on tsunami have gained interest in Malaysia. Situated in the middle of the Sunda Plate and close to the Ring of Fire, Malaysia is surrounded by seismically active zones that pose risks of natural hazards, among which is tsunami. The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami caused by a magnitude 9.3 earthquake off Sumatran coastline was the first tsunami to have reached Malaysia in the country's own recorded history, though there are brief records of other tsunami reaching Malaysian coastline in the past. This paper reviewed relevant literature sources to highlight the intensity and diversity of damages caused by the tsunami towards Malaysia. These damages ranged from loss of lives, physical damage to structures and infrastructures, environmental changes, socioeconomic setbacks, and health issues among the victims. Subsequent measures taken by the Malaysian government and agencies in managing disaster risk in the country are also reviewed. These measures include the identification of tsunami hazard zones, development of tsunami emergency response plans, and the formation of the National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA). In addition, the shift in disaster management approaches from being heavily top-down towards community-based was examined. Understanding of the wide spectrum of impacts caused by the tsunami disaster, the contributing factors as well as mitigation efforts reviewed in this paper can be particularly useful in making informed decisions regarding future risk reduction strategies in the context of a developing country like Malaysia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 22 December 2018, a tsunami was generated from the Mount Anak Krakatau area that was caused by volcanic flank failures. The tsunami had severe impacts on the western coast of Banten and the southern coasts of Lampung in Indonesia. A series of surveys to measure the impacts of the tsunami was started three days after the tsunami and lasted ten days. Immediate investigations allowed the collection of relatively authentic images of the tsunami impacts before the clearing process started. This article investigates the impacts of the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami on the affected areas and presents an analysis of the impacts of pure hydrodynamic tsunami forces on buildings. Impacts of the tsunami were expected to exhibit different characteristics than those found following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Aceh. Data was collected from 117 flow depths along the Banten and Lampung coasts. Furthermore, 98 buildings or houses were assessed for damage. Results of this study revealed that the flow depths were higher in Banten than in Lampung. Directions of the tsunami arrays created by the complex bathymetry around the strait caused these differences. Tsunami-induced damage to buildings was mostly the result of impact forces and drag forces. Damping forces could not be associated with the damages. The tsunami warning system in Indonesia should be extended to anticipate non-seismic tsunamis, such as landslides and volcanic processes driven by tsunamis. Lack of a tsunami warning during the first few minutes after the generation of the first wave led to a significant number of human casualties at both of the affected areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tsunami fragility functions describe the probability of structural damage due to tsunami flow characteristics. Fragility functions developed from past tsunami events (e.g., the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami) are often applied directly, without modification, to other areas at risk of tsunami for the purpose of damage and loss estimations. Consequentially, estimates carry uncertainty due to disparities in construction standards and coastal morphology between the specific region for which the fragility functions were originally derived and the region where they are being used. The main objective of this study is to provide an alternative approach to assessing tsunami damage, especially for buildings in regions where previously developed fragility functions do not exist. A damage assessment model is proposed in this study, where load-resistance analysis is performed for each building by evaluating hydrodynamic forces, buoyancies and debris impacts and comparing them to the resistance forces of each building. Numerical simulation was performed in this study to reproduce the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami in Ishinomaki, which is chosen as a study site. Flow depths and velocities were calculated for approximately 20 000 wooden buildings in Ishinomaki. Similarly, resistance forces (lateral and vertical) are estimated for each of these buildings. The buildings are then evaluated for their potential of collapsing. Results from this study reflect a higher accuracy in predicting building collapse when using the proposed load-resistance analysis, as compared to previously developed fragility functions in the same study area. Damage is also observed to have likely occurred before flow depth and velocity reach maximum values. With the above considerations, the proposed damage model might well be an alternative for building damage assessments in areas that have yet to be affected by modern tsunami events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tsunami risk assessment is an important component of the planning for risk reduction. We considered tsunami risk as a convolution of tsunami hazard, vulnerability of the assets at risk (e.g. buildings) and the economic value exposed. For testing the model, a coastal segment at the west of Heraklion, capital city of Crete Isl., Greece, was selected. Heraklion was hit in the past by strong tectonic and volcanic tsunamis, generated along the Hellenic Arc in the Mediterranean region. The Minoan tsunami produced by pyroclastic flows during the LBA (17th century BC) great eruption of Thera (Santorini) was selected as an extreme tsunami scenario for the hazard (inundation) zone determination through numerical simulation based on Boussinesq equations for fully non-linear waves. It was found that the wave penetrates inland up to ~ 1.2 km, while the maximum water depth is ~ 14 m. The building stock was obtained from the 2011 national census data and validated with the use of orthophotomaps, field inspection and Google Maps. Building vulnerability was determined with the use of the empirical GIS tool DAMASCHE which is based on 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami building damage data and produces damage level by combining water depth and building construction types. The damage level was translated to absolute monetary loss on the basis of cost flat rates determined officially for building replacement, i.e., either reparation or reconstruction, after the destructive earthquakes in Greece during 2014. The method is applicable in other parts of the Mediterranean and beyond provided that appropriate data are available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tsunami fragility functions describe the probability of structural damage to tsunami flow characteristics. Fragility functions developed from past tsunami events (e.g. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami) are often applied directly, without modifications, to other areas at risk of tsunami for the purpose of damage and loss estimations. Consequentially, estimates carry uncertainty due to disparities in construction standards and coastal morphology between the specific region for which the fragility functions were originally derived and the region where they were being used. The main objective of this study is to provide an alternative approach to assessing tsunami damage, especially for buildings in regions where previously developed fragility functions do not exist. A damage assessment model is proposed in this study, where load-resistance analysis is performed for each building by evaluating hydrodynamic forces, buoyancies and debris impacts and comparing them to the resistance forces of each building. Numerical simulation was performed in this study to reproduce the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami in Ishinomaki city, which is chosen as a study site. Flow depths and velocities were calculated for approximately 20 000 wooden buildings in Ishinomaki city. Similarly, resistance forces (lateral and vertical) are estimated for each of these buildings. The buildings are then evaluated for its potential to collapse. Results from this study reflect a higher accuracy in predicting building collapse when using the proposed load-resistance analysis as compared to previously developed fragility functions in the same study area. Damage is also observed to have likely occurred before flow depth and velocity reach maximum values. With the above considerations, the proposed damage model might well be an alternative for building damage assessments in areas which have yet to be affected by modern tsunami events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The impact of disasters caused by natural hazards on people in affected communities is mediated by a whole range of circumstances such as the intensity of the disaster, type and nature of the community affected and the nature of loss and displacement. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the need to adopt a holistic or integrated approach to assessment of the process of disaster recovery, and to develop a multidimensional assessment framework.Design/methodology/approach The study is designed as a novel qualitative assessment of the recovery process using qualitative data collection techniques from a sample of communities affected by the Indian Ocean tsunami in Eastern and Southern Sri Lanka.Findings The outcomes of the interventions have varied widely depending on such factors as the nature of the community, the nature of the intervention and the mode of delivery for donor support. The surveyed communities are ranked in terms of the nature and extent of recovery.Practical implications The indices of recovery developed constitute a convenient tool of measurement of effectiveness and limitations of external interventions. The assessment used is multidimensional and socially inclusive.Originality/value The approach adopted is new to post-disaster recovery assessments and is useful for monitoring and evaluation of recovery processes. It also fits into the social accountability model as the assessment is based on community experience with the recovery process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose After tsunami 2004, it was estimated that more than 98,000 permanent houses had to be rebuilt. However, ten years on, as communities, are they satisfied in their new homes? What are the indicators affecting the long-term satisfaction of resettled communities in relation to their new permanent houses. The purpose of this paper is to qualitatively evaluate the level of long-term satisfaction of two tsunami affected resettled communities in Sri Lanka in a bid to identify the indicators affecting the long-term satisfaction of post disaster resettled communities in relation to permanent housing.Design/methodology/approach In addition to the thorough literature review conducted to evaluate the state of the art in the subject area, a series of interviews were conducted with experts and tsunami affected communities in Sri Lanka to gather primary data for this research. The literature review is used to establish the initial list of indicators of long-term satisfaction of resettlements. The expert interviews and the community interviews were used to verify and refine the initially identified indicators.Findings A sustainable resettlement programme is just not merely reconstruction of a set of houses. A resettlement programme should re-establish the socio-economic and cultural life of people. Reconstruction of a house does not solve the housing issue; it is vital to look in to the indicators which can convert a house into a home and the surrounding into a neighbourhood.Originality/value This paper makes a significant contribution in terms of identifying indicators affecting the long-term community satisfaction with resettlement programmes taking into account economic, social and cultural factors with a special emphasis on post tsunami resettlements in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose Although, a number of initiatives have been taken after the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami to institutionalise disaster risk reduction (DRR), gaps still exist in the Sri Lankan local government sector. Even after ten years, local governments are still struggling to overcome a number of challenges in relation to making resilience in the built environment. DRR has not yet been properly integrated into the local government system and, as a result, poses a significant challenge. Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to discover the hindrances for local governments in creating disaster resilient built environment within cities and to propose ways of overcoming the identified limitations.Design/methodology/approach In total, 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted among experts from Sri Lanka who are involved in disaster management, local governments and built environment fields of study. The interviews were conducted with the intention of gaining expert knowledge pertaining to this field of study. The interviews were mainly designed to capture the current practices for instigating DRR initiatives within Sri Lanka, the role of local governments in creating a disaster resilient built environment and the associated challenges, and ways of overcoming such challenges to ensure an effective contribution to city resilience.Findings Primary data discovered 36 challenges along with some associated sub-challenges. The challenges were categorised under eight main themes: legal framework; lack of adequate tools, techniques and guidelines; human resource constraints; funding constraints; weaknesses in the internal systems and processes; weaknesses in the external systems; community engagement; and other challenges. The paper analyses these challenges in detail and proposes a set of recommendations to overcome the challenges in order to create disaster resilient built environments within cities.Research limitations/implications The paper provides a descriptive analysis of how the Sri Lankan local government sector could overcome the underpinning challenges of contributing to disaster resilience in the built environment and no comparative studies were conducted with in other tsunami affected regions. Furthermore, the paper analyses partial findings of a broader research, which was aimed at developing a framework to empower local governments in creating a disaster resilient built environment.Originality/value The paper provides an extensive analysis of the challenges faced by local governments in contributing to the resilience of their built environment and proposes how these challenges could be overcome while making a worthwhile contribution to both theory and practice. Accordingly, the paper recommends major changes in policy and practice with respect to bringing local governments into DRR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused damage to many buildings and killed a lot of people in several countries that border on the Indian Ocean including Thailand. To understand the behaviour of reinforced-concrete buildings under tsunami loads, a generic one-storey building has been developed from the average values of the structural indices of residential houses in southern Thailand. The generic building has been analysed to capture responses under tsunami hydrodynamic forces. At each inundation depth, the lateral force has been increased until collapse. From results, the resistance of the building was controlled by the shear failure of columns at inundation depths lower than 2.57 m. The lateral resistances controlled by the shear failure were about 258 kN. As the inundation depth increased, locations of loads moved higher and the flexural failure occurred in the columns of the building. At an inundation depth of 3.2 m, the lateral resistance decreased about 50% from that controlled by the shear failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused damage to many buildings and killed a lot of people in several Indian Ocean countries, including Thailand. Several reinforced-concrete (RC) buildings in Southern Thailand that were gravity-load-designed buildings suffered damage due to the tsunami. To understand the behaviour of RC buildings under tsunami loads, the one-story building, which was the former office of the Thai Meteorological Department located in Phang-Nga province, was tested under tsunami load patterns. In this research, the RC building is modelled for three-dimensional non-linear static pushover analysis. In the building model, masonry infill walls are idealised as diagonal struts by using uniaxial non-linear springs, and plastic hinges are modelled by non-linear fibre elements. The results of the building model agree well with test results. The effect of masonry infill walls is investigated by considering various wall arrangement patterns. The building with masonry infill walls can resist the lateral load two times higher than the resistance of the building without masonry infill wall. The masonry infill walls with the appropriate arrangement can significantly improve the load-resisting capacity of the building under tsunami loads. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper highlights the impact of the 26th December 2004 Tsunami on fisheries in Kivelur Taluk, Nagapattinam District. It focuses on accounting for the losses and damages to human lives, fishing equipments, livelihood and loss of employment and income of affected people. Rehabilitation measures by various assisting agencies and NGOs are also discussed and recommendations for better disaster management are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aceh, located in the northernmost area of Sumatra Island, is one of the regions that suffered the most damage from the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. The process of reconstruction after a large-scale disaster is considered an opportunity to create a safer society, especially for developing countries, however the accumulation of knowledge about how to improve reconstruction is insufficient. The affected areas have diverse social and economic characteristics and unprecedented restoration efforts have been made. The Indian Ocean tsunami disaster, therefore, provides numerous research opportunities, and many surveys and other researches have been conducted to better understand what happened and how the reconstruction process could be improved. However, the majority of such research has focused on housing reconstruction, rebuilding livelihoods and community rehabilitation and there has been only limited research on transportation-related issues. Thus, there is significance in evaluating the reconstruction of Aceh from a transportation perspective, a dimension that has yet to be examined systematically. As a first step in the effort to evaluate various aspects of the reconstruction of Aceh from a transportation perspective, this research aims to present three transportation-related issues within the reconstruction process—1) the road network in the Banda Aceh coastal area, 2) mobility in relocation sites, and 3) reconstruction of the Banda Aceh–Meulaboh road—and to conduct a preliminary analysis of these issues by adding the viewpoint of disaster management and reconstruction, the authors'' area of specialization. For conducting a preliminary analysis, existing information such as research papers, articles and reports and data collected through interviews and field reconnaissance conducted by the authors were utilized as much as possible, and such “qualitative data” was analyzed by applying the “interpretive approach”, considered an appropriate analytical framework for qualitative data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the framework of the European SCenarios for tsunami Hazard-induced Emergencies MAnagement (SCHEMA) project (www.schemaproject.org), we empirically developed new tsunami damage functions to be used for quantifying the potential tsunami damage to buildings along European-Mediterranean coasts. Since no sufficient post-tsunami observations exist in the Mediterranean areas, we based our work on data collected by several authors in Banda Aceh (Indonesia) after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Obviously, special attention has been paid in focusing on Indonesian buildings which present similarities (in structure, construction material, number of storeys) with the building typologies typical of the European-Mediterranean areas. An important part of the work consisted in analyzing, merging, and interpolating the post-disaster observations published by three independent teams in order to obtain the spatial distribution of flow depths necessary to link the flow-depth hazard parameter to the damage level observed on buildings. Then we developed fragility curves (showing the cumulative probability to have, for each flow depth, a damage level equal-to or greater-than a given threshold) and damage curves (giving the expected damage level) for different classes of buildings. It appears that damage curves based on the weighted mean damage level and the maximum flow depth are the most appropriate for producing, under GIS, expected damage maps for different tsunami scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tsunami N2 model has been used to simulate the Tsunami amplitudes and horizontal extent of inundation from the Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004. The areas considered here pertain to the southwest coast of India, comprising the states of Kerala and Karnataka. In addition, the simulation of tsunami amplitudes and inundation has also been done for some selected islands of the Lakshadweep group of islands of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the discourse of U.S. relief efforts after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and argues that exceptionalist rhetorics rely on citizen virtue to motivate state action. Examining speeches and interviews by U.S. presidents and newspaper articles and editorials from domestic news sources, themes of compassion, humanitarianism, and global leadership converge to form an exceptionalist rhetoric of compassionate generosity that legitimates U.S. global hegemony. This critique highlights how, in moments of international crisis, virtues are mobilized to buttress America's moral position and advances a rhetoric of humanitarian militarism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "construction output shock" that was generated by the massive reconstruction programmes after the Indian Ocean tsunami in Sri Lanka spread through the economic system and was reflected in economic indicators due to the multiple linkages that the construction industry has with other economic sectors. On the ground, it was observed that the prices of construction materials, labour and plant rose suddenly in the affected regions making the reconstruction effort more costly. This paper considers the responses of major economic and construction indicators to the construction shock due to post-tsunami reconstruction and the amount of time needed before they returned to an equilibrium state. Empirical results indicate that the construction output shock had a significant impact on material, labour and equipment price indices in the short run but other indicators showed only a very marginal response indicating that the remoteness of the disaster would have delayed the propagation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The megathrust earthquake of moment magnitude 9.1 - 9.3 on December 26, 2004 unleashed a massive tsunami which devastated the coastal belts of Sri Lanka as well as several other countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Extensive field observations carried out in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the tsunami clearly showed that the spatial variation of the degree of destruction along the coastal belt was highly non-uniform. The coastal geomorphology, for instance, the presence of sand dunes in some parts of the coast, is one primary factor that had contributed to this nonuniformity. Accordingly, the present paper investigates, as a case study, the effect of a nearly 2 km long sand dune, lying along a part of the seafront of a city on the south coast of Sri Lanka, on the characteristics of the spatial distribution of inundation. Numerical simulations based on non-linear shallow water equations were carried out first with the sand dune and then without the dune to obtain the respective spatial distributions of the maximum values of the depth of inundation and the flow velocity as well as their temporal variations. The results appear to indicate that the peak flood flow rates and flow depths are higher in most areas of the city in the case without the dune compared to that with the dune. However, it appears that the tsunami surge backing up against the sand dune and other elevated beachfronts causes a rise in water level of up to 0.5 m in the case with the sand dune compared to that without the dune. Flow velocities in the absence of the dune too appear to be higher in most areas although there are patches of lower velocities at certain low elevation localities with elevated ground on either side. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the challenges involved in rebuilding Sri Lanka after the tsunami disaster in 2004. The post tsunami disaster program has three phases which include rescue and relief, transitional, and reconstruction and rehabilitation. The completed housing construction programs are either as donor-driven programs or owner-driven programs. Key innovative solutions were also implemented to meet the growing construction demand. Lessons learned from the disaster are presented.

Abstract: In this case study, we investigate the applicability of rainwater harvesting as a sustainable water supply option in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, an area severely hit by the tsunami in 2004. Due to technical and geographical factors, the local residents spend approximately 16% of their incomes on the purchase of water. For this reason, a new, economical, and sustainable way of obtaining water is a most important and urgent concern. A team from Seoul National University recently developed and installed several rainwater harvesting systems in the area in January 2007 and 2008, focusing particularly on increasing public awareness of rainwater harvesting and capacity building in Banda Aceh. This paper discusses the general public perceptions, installation methods, and viability of the system. We found that rainwater harvesting, accompanied by an increase in public awareness and appropriate education, can best serve the needs of the community. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Sri Lanka is the second worst affected country in tsunami disaster in year 2004. It was the greatest natural devastation in the history. It damaged 87% of the coastal belt of the country. It destroyed existing water supply and sanitation systems disrupting the public services. After the tsunami there was an urgent need for temporary water supply and sanitation facilities for internally displaced persons lived in temporary camps. Within fewweeks, it was necessary to provide water and sanitation facilities to transitional camps. This situation lasted for few months. Then, it was a challenge to provide water and sanitation facilities to resettlement sites. The situation was addressed with the help of governmental and non-governmental organizations. This paper illustrates the challenges faced in providing water and sanitation facilities in various phases in detail. It also emphasis on the need of an emergency preparedness plans in order to face similar situations in future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Analysis of satellite remote sensing data has revealed changes in distribution of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and sea surface temperature (SST) in the Indian Ocean during the South Asian tsunami in December 2004. Chl-a data derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) images were examined for the period from 1998 to 2005. Around the epicentre of the Sumatra earthquake, the Chl-a concentration was found to increase prior to the main event on 26 December 2004 and then decrease during the tsunami event, while a high SST (∼30-31°C) was observed in and around the epicentral region. Chl-a concentrations in the coastal waters of the Southeast Asian countries were remarkably low during and after the tsunami. Similar but relatively small variations in Chl-a and SST were observed during the second earthquake on 28 March 2005. Analysis of Chl-a, SST, wind and upwelling water has provided information for understanding the changes in Chl-a concentration during the tsunami. A very large offshore phytoplankton bloom (∼300 km2) appeared to the southeast of Sri Lanka about 3 weeks after the tsunami; this might have been caused by a tropical storm that could be responsible for the enhancement of nutrients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami wrought environmental damage beyond the normal framework of integrated coastal management and has implications for coastal management in Asia-Pacific in the post-tsunami phase. Fieldwork conducted on the coasts of four tsunami-affected countries in 2005 and 2006 identified several “practitioner-type” issues that would have implications for ICM policy. These include the loss of land with accompanying land tenure problems; the safety zone in conflict with the buffer zone; the need for better integration of livelihoods restoration with the rehabilitation of coastal ecosystems; and the inclusion of tsunami mitigation in the larger framework of climate change mitigation. A discussion of these issues and future role of ICM would provide a fresh perspective to policy-practice of ICM. A proposal is made to study various development pathways of selected coastal villages as they recovered in the post-tsunami phase. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Vulnerability reduction to tsunamis has become a major issue after the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami disaster. An ex ante (before the event) evaluation of possible disaster reduction measures requires insight into the potential risks. As part of a study focusing on sea defence measures for Aceh and Nias provinces in Indonesia, we have developed a model that is capable of quantifying potential damages and casualties for tsunami-prone coastal areas. The model was able to reproduce the damage of 2004 sustained in Banda Aceh quite accurately. Because it is GIS based, the model also shows the spatial distribution of damage. Maps can be prepared that show high- and low-impact areas for various tsunami event scenarios. This information is very useful for cost-benefit analysis of mitigation measures, such as sea defence measures, spatial planning and evacuation procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: By using an integrated approach, tsunami affected land, vegetation and inhabitants were assessed to evaluate the potential to restore and protect coastal land in the context of Kyoto Protocol''s Clean Development Mechanism in Hambantota district in the south-eastern part of Sri Lanka. Firstly, assessments of the status of the tsunami affected area were carried out by collecting soil and well water samplings for carbon and salinity analysis. Secondly, identification of potential tree species for carbon sequestration and sustainable development was conducted to determine carbon stock and suitability to grow under the prevailing conditions. In addition, interviews to understand the local people''s perception of forest plantations and land use were conducted. The results showed that the resilience process of salt intruded lands from the 2004 Asian tsunami has progressed rapidly with low salinity level in the soils 14 months after the event, while the well water showed evidence of salinity contamination. The carbon stock was highest in natural forests followed by coconut plantations. Land users could envision expanding their present plantations or establish new ones. The barriers were defined as lack of financial investment capital and limited land for extended plantations. If a Clean Development Mechanism project is to be established, the coconut tree was found to be the most appropriate tree species since it has high carbon content, had co-benefits and possesses a salt-tolerant characteristic. Finally, the tsunami event has triggered land users to perceive environmental benefits of protection from mangrove or other adequate vegetation such as coconut plantations as welcome and desired to decrease their vulnerability. The assessment of multi-functionality of forest plantations, such as small-scale community based Clean Development Mechanism, its generated income from carbon credits as well as the wish for environmental protection should be considered to increase the attractiveness of plantation projects in the coastal areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper addresses some of the environmental and socioeconomic dimensions of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on Penang, Malaysia. We aim to offer wide access to unique and perishable data, while at the same time providing insight to ongoing debates about hazards, vulnerability and social capital. Our social survey examines some of the dynamics that shaped the tsunami impact, response and recovery process. While in terms of lives lost Penang may not conform to arguments surrounding vulnerable environments, the recovery process is more marked by social disparities in terms of the ability to access resources. Our physical survey records local topography, flow depth and flow direction, and charts the differential impact of the tsunami. Yet measuring hazards is not a straightforward process, and relies on reflexive methodologies and eyewitness accounts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: After the Tsunami struck Tamilnadu in India in 2004, a spate of psychosocial training programmes were held by a host of agencies, both government and non-government. Aim: This study is an empirical approach to the assessment of the psychosocial training programmes held after tsunami. The nature and quality of training received by the community level workers (CLWs) and the interventions carried out by them are described. Methods: CLWs were interviewed using a questionnaire to assess details about training and interventions carried out by them. Qualitative information was also gathered both from CLWs and the community. A comparison was made between CLWs of government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and those belonging to self-help groups. Results: While most CLWs seemed to have benefited greatly from the training programmes, they had several suggestions to make about refining its quality. Multiple programmes, not well coordinated, resulted in a lot of overlap. The community was generally happy with the interventions provided and felt that they were necessary for about six months at least. One-to-one interventions are preferred to group activities, except in the case of children. Conclusions: Psychosocial support (PSS) training programmes after a disaster situation will need to be coordinated by a nodal agency. Too many players on the field with their own agenda do not benefit the community and can well be a waste of resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 26 December 2004 tsunami disaster around the Indian Ocean provided an opportunity to see if decades of knowledge and experience on post-disaster settlement and shelter could be applied to match the tagline which many groups gave to the post-tsunami reconstruction: ‘build back better’ (or ‘building back better’). This paper uses evidence from field work completed on implementing settlement and shelter in post-tsunami Aceh and Sri Lanka to examine whether or not the theory and practice of ‘build back better’ were witnessed. Focusing on settlement and shelter, four areas are examined: (i) safety, security, and livelihoods; (ii) how post-disaster settlement and shelter could have an improved connection with permanent housing and communities (the ‘transition to what?’ question); (iii) fairness and equity; and (iv) connecting relief and development by tackling root causes of vulnerability. Based on the field work, addressing these four areas is suggested as how ‘build back better’ could be implemented. Recommendations are 1.Community involvement is essential, but that does not necessarily mean community control. 2.Organizations involved in implementing transitional settlement and shelter need to consider their capacity and links to other sectors. 3.Thinking ahead is necessary by integrating relief and development through long-term planning and disaster risk reduction. Overall, ‘building back safer’ might be a preferable tagline to ‘building back better’ because ‘better’ has multiple interpretations, many of which caused further problems, whereas ‘safer’ provides a clearer goal on which to focus for post-disaster settlement and shelter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unprecedented devastating Indian Ocean tsunami, which struck the western coast of southern Thailand on 26 December 2004, caused more than 5300 deaths, and heavy damage to buildings in the affected areas. This paper presents field observations of damage to buildings and infrastructure hit by the tsunami in southern Thailand. The clues obtained from the performance of these structures, which have not been designed for seismic or tsunami loadings, are valuable for improvements in safe and economical design of buildings against future tsunamis. Two important features beneficial for disaster reduction on coasts are low seawalls and openings in walls in buildings. The former helps partially dissipate the energy of the incoming waves while the latter serves to reduce the unbalanced pressure on the walls of buildings. The survival of a large number of buildings suggests that it is possible to design tsunami-resistant structures with reparability performance level, with a consequence of fast recovery and minimum economic loss. This is of practical significance for the design of evacuation shelters to save human lives. Consideration of a suitable tsunami design velocity is also addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Great attention is directed to rebuild livelihoods and rehabilitate coastal communities affected by the Tsunami in the Indian Ocean in South Asia. It takes years of effort of different engineering disciplines to recover from recent devastations caused by the Tsunami. Geosynthetics can play important and vital roles in the protection, mitigation and rehabilitation efforts in affected coastal areas. Geosynthetics can be applied for reinforcement, filtration, drainage, protection, lining, and containment. Particularly, geotextiles can be used effectively for erosion protection and for reinforcement of earth embankments to resist failure during the occurrence of earthquakes associated with tsunami. Presented in this paper is the interaction behavior at pullout interfaces of high strength geotextile confined in weathered clay and silty sand. The interface parameters which are needed for both finite element and conventional analyses of geotextile-reinforced earth structures such as the local shear stress/shear displacement, the interface interaction coefficient and the in-soil stress/strain of the reinforcement have been successfully interpreted by the newly proposed method considering the softening behavior and non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the extensible reinforcement. Results from this study indicate that the interpretation of pullout tests using conventional methods underestimated both the shear stiffness and the peak shear strength at the pullout interface of extensible reinforcement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Visual analysis of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 250m before-and-after event imagery along 11 335 km of South East Asia and East Africa's coastline identified major changes to land cover along 1 220 km of coast caused by the tsunami of 26 December 2004. Over 81 000 ha of land were mapped as lost or severely damaged. High spatial resolution images (10-32 m) from the Terra satellite's Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, Disaster Monitoring Constellation's Surrey Linear Imager and the Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) provided verification. Area estimates of damaged land from MODIS were within 17% of the estimates made using high spatial resolution systems. Errors of commission and omission were estimated at 14% and 31%, respectively. The correlation between damage estimates from MODIS and high spatial resolution systems resulted in an R 2 of 0.73 at the 99.5% confidence level, with MODIS proving especially effective at mapping tsunami-damaged areas greater in size than 150 ha. Correcting the original area estimate to account for errors of omission and commission using the regression model gave a revised figure of 103 854 ha of land damaged. Land cover types could not be assigned from the MODIS pre- and post-disaster image pairs, but interpretation of pre-disaster ETM imagery for the damaged areas indicated that around 5% was previously classed as barren, 11% as urban, 14% forest and 70% rural. The study provides confirmation that moderate resolution satellite imagery can provide rapid assessments of severe damage to land resources (though not cover type), as well as confirmation of non-affected areas, over very large geographical regions in the aftermath of natural disasters such as the tsunami. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As various sensors with different spatial resolutions, spectral resolutions, etc., have been in operation, an extremely large image database is ready. How to retrieve the relevant information is a critical problem in the context of quick damage assessment. This study develops a framework to integrate medium resolution (Landsat or ASTER) and high-resolution (QuickBird or IKONOS) satellite images and digital elevation data in mapping tsunami-affected areas. The processing flows upwards from macro-scale (medium spatial resolution data) to micro-scale (high spatial resolution data). Across this pyramidal searching, only necessary data is acquired, processed and the focused geographical extent is narrowed. Suitable pixel-based and object-based processing methods are also developed. Using the developed processing flow drastically reduces acquisition cost and processing time. The selected test sites in Phangnga and Phuket Provinces, Thailand, which were severely affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, are used to demonstrate the performance of the framework. Further studies include the implementation of the processing system and the extension of the idea to other natural hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study shows how far remote-sensing technology can contribute to assess quickly the impact of the tsunami disaster in Aceh, Indonesia. It focuses on the identification of damaged buildings and land-use changes in the post-tsunami disaster using a quick-look image of IKONOS and Quickbird. The method includes pre-processing, on-screen digitizing, change detection, and generating thematic maps. The results obtained from the study include information about distribution of damaged buildings, land-use changes, and total coverage of land affected by the tsunami disaster. Building units decreased almost 85%, from 4546 units to 649 units. Up to 2 303 046 m2 of vegetated became mud-covered, while there was a decrease in the area of vegetated land, up to 1 869 676 m2. For the relocation stage, the proposed method, called a quick standard procedure, is an appropriate approach which needs to be adopted by local government, non-governmental organizations, and volunteers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information about a project of the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW). The project is known as the Families and Survivors of Tsunami (FAST). It was launched in early 2005 by the Asia-Pacific branch of IFSW and the Commonwealth Organization for Social Work (COSW) in order to support the recovery program from the Indian Ocean tsunami disaster which occurred in December 2004. FAST, in turn, gave birth to other subprojects to help families, children and vulnerable people involved in this natural disaster.