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The first description of the human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) was made in 1980, followed closely by the discovery of HTLV-2, in 1982. Since then, the main characteristics of these viruses, commonly referred to as HTLV-1/2, have been thoroughly studied. Central and South America and the Caribbean are areas of high prevalence of HTLV-1 and HTVL-2 and have clusters of infected people. The major modes of transmission have been through sexual contact, blood, and mother to child via breast-feeding. HTLV-1 is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL), HTLV-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP), and HTLV-associated uveitis as well as infectious dermatitis of children. More clarification is needed in the possible role of HTLV in rheumatologic, psychiatric, and infectious diseases. Since cures for ATL and HAM/TSP are lacking and no vaccine is available to prevent HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 transmission, these illnesses impose enormous social and financial costs on infected individuals, their families, and health care systems. For this reason, public health interventions aimed at counseling and educating high-risk individuals and populations are of vital importance. In the Americas this is especially important in the areas of high prevalence.

Introduction: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most frequent form of leishmaniasis, with 0.7 to 1.2 million cases per year globally. However, the burden of CL is poorly documented in some regions. We carried out this review to synthesize knowledge on the epidemiological burden of CL in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: We systematically searched PubMed, CABI Global health, Africa Index Medicus databases for publications on CL and its burden. There were no restrictions on language/publication date. Case series with less than ten patients, species identification studies, reviews, non-human, and non-CL focused studies were excluded. Findings were extracted and described. The review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines; the protocol was registered in PROSPERO (42016036272). Results: From 289 identified records, 54 met eligibility criteria and were included in the synthesis. CL was reported from 13 of the 48 sub-Saharan African countries (3 eastern, nine western and one from southern Africa). More than half of the records (30/54; 56%) were from western Africa, notably Senegal, Burkina Faso and Mali. All studies were observational: 29 were descriptive case series (total 13,257 cases), and 24 followed a cross-sectional design. The majority (78%) of the studies were carried out before the year 2000. Forty-two studies mentioned the parasite species, but was either assumed or attributed on the historical account. Regional differences in clinical manifestations were reported. We found high variability across methodologies, leading to difficulties to compare or combine data. The prevalence in hospital settings among suspected cases ranged between 0.1 and 14.2%. At the community level, CL prevalence varied widely between studies. Outbreaks of thousands of cases occurred in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Sudan. Polymorphism of CL in HIV-infected people is a concern. Key information gaps in CL burden here include population-based CL prevalence/incidence, risk factors, and its socio-economic burden. Conclusion: The evidence on CL epidemiology in sub-Saharan Africa is scanty. The CL frequency and severity are poorly identified. There is a need for population-based studies to define the CL burden better. Endemic countries should consider research and action to improve burden estimation and essential control measures including diagnosis and treatment capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Tegumentary leishmaniasis (TL) is a disease of skin and/or mucosal tissues caused by Leishmania parasites. TL patients may concurrently carry other pathogens, which may influence the clinical outcome of TL. Methodology and principal findings: This review focuses on the frequency of TL coinfections in human populations, interactions between Leishmania and other pathogens in animal models and human subjects, and implications of TL coinfections for clinical practice. For the purpose of this review, TL is defined as all forms of cutaneous (localised, disseminated, or diffuse) and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection, superinfection with skin bacteria, and skin manifestations of visceral leishmaniasis are not included. We searched MEDLINE and other databases and included 73 records: 21 experimental studies in animals and 52 studies about human subjects (mainly cross-sectional and case studies). Several reports describe the frequency of Trypanosoma cruzi coinfection in TL patients in Argentina (about 41%) and the frequency of helminthiasis in TL patients in Brazil (15% to 88%). Different hypotheses have been explored about mechanisms of interaction between different microorganisms, but no clear answers emerge. Such interactions may involve innate immunity coupled with regulatory networks that affect quality and quantity of acquired immune responses. Diagnostic problems may occur when concurrent infections cause similar lesions (e.g., TL and leprosy), when different pathogens are present in the same lesions (e.g., Leishmania and Sporothrix schenckii), or when similarities between phylogenetically close pathogens affect accuracy of diagnostic tests (e.g., serology for leishmaniasis and Chagas disease). Some coinfections (e.g., helminthiasis) appear to reduce the effectiveness of antileishmanial treatment, and drug combinations may cause cumulative adverse effects. Conclusions and significance: In patients with TL, coinfection is frequent, it can lead to diagnostic errors and delays, and it can influence the effectiveness and safety of treatment. More research is needed to unravel how coinfections interfere with the pathogenesis of TL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stockouts of HIV commodities increase the risk of treatment interruption, antiretroviral resistance, treatment failure, morbidity and mortality. The study objective was to assess the magnitude and duration of stockouts of HIV medicines and diagnostic tests in public facilities in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. This was a cross-sectional survey involving visits to facilities and warehouses in April and May 2015. All zonal warehouses, all public facilities with more than 200 patients on antiretroviral treatment (ART) (high-burden facilities) and a purposive sample of facilities with 200 or fewer patients (low-burden facilities) in Kinshasa were selected. We focused on three adult ART formulations, cotrimoxazole tablets, and HIV diagnostic tests. Availability of items was determined by physical check, while stockout duration until the day of the survey visit was verified with stock cards. In case of ART stockouts, we asked the pharmacist in charge what the facility coping strategy was for patients needing those medicines. The study included 28 high-burden facilities and 64 low-burden facilities, together serving around 22000 ART patients. During the study period, a national shortage of the newly introduced first-line regimen Tenofovir-Lamivudine-Efavirenz resulted in stockouts of this regimen in 56% of high-burden and 43% of low-burden facilities, lasting a median of 36 (interquartile range 29–90) and 44 days (interquartile range 24–90) until the day of the survey visit, respectively. Each of the other investigated commodities were found out of stock in at least two low-burden and two high-burden facilities. In 30/41 (73%) of stockout cases, the commodity was absent at the facility but present at the upstream warehouse. In 30/57 (54%) of ART stockout cases, patients did not receive any medicines. In some cases, patients were switched to different ART formulations or regimens. Stockouts of HIV commodities were common in the visited facilities. Introduction of new ART regimens needs additional planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a case study commissioned by the Neglected Infectious Disease dIAGnosis (NIDIAG) on rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) labeling and instructions for use in persistent fever, with emphasis on in vitro diagnostic tests (IVD). It highlights the need for proactive interest from IVD manufacturers in connection with ISO 13485 guidelines.