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Cardiac sarcoidosis is an infiltrative cardiomyopathy that results from granulomatous inflammation of the myocardium and may present with high-grade conduction disease, ventricular arrhythmias, and right or left ventricular dysfunction. Over the past several decades, the prevalence of cardiac sarcoidosis has increased. Definitive histological confirmation is often not possible, so clinicians frequently face uncertainty about the accuracy of diagnosis. Hence, the likelihood of cardiac sarcoidosis should be thought of as a continuum (definite, highly probable, probable, possible, low probability, unlikely) rather than in a binary fashion. Treatment should be initiated in individuals with clinical manifestations and active inflammation in a tiered approach, with corticosteroids as first-line treatment. The lack of randomized clinical trials in cardiac sarcoidosis has led to treatment decisions based on cohort studies and consensus opinions, with substantial variation observed across centers. This scientific statement is intended to guide clinical practice and to facilitate management conformity by providing a framework for the diagnosis and management of cardiac sarcoidosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite advances in the management of heart failure ( HF), quality of life and other outcomes remain suboptimal for many patients. Anemia and iron deficiency are comorbidities associated with adverse outcomes, although their pathophysiology in the setting of HF is not entirely understood. Anemia and iron deficiency may exist independently and may be a consequence of the systemic inflammatory state characterized by chronic HF. However, it is unclear whether serum hemoglobin concentrations and other hematologic parameters serve as markers for the severity of disease or represent novel therapeutic targets. Research in this area has focused primarily on therapies known to be effective for these conditions in other chronic disease states with similar pathophysiologic features (e.g., end-stage renal disease). Despite its many practical advantages, minimal evidence exists to support the use of oral iron supplementation in this setting. In contrast, intravenous iron has been the subject of several recent investigations, demonstrating improvements in both surrogate and clinical end points, although benefits seem to be the most substantial in patients with concomitant anemia. Erythropoietin-stimulating agents demonstrated early promise in retrospective analyses and small prospective trials, but their benefit was outweighed by a lack of improvement in clinical outcomes and an excess number of thromboembolic events in the largest trial of patients with anemia and HF to date. For acute symptomatic anemia, blood transfusion may be considered, although few trials have included patients with HF, and caution must be exerted in those who are hemodynamically unstable. Based on the currently available evidence, treatment of iron deficiency appears to confer benefit in patients with HF, whereas strategies aimed at improving hemoglobin alone do not. Included is a review of the pathophysiology of these conditions in the setting of HF, clinical trials evaluating pharmacologic therapy, and recommendations for management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]