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The feasible commercialization of alkaline, phosphoric acid and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells depends on the development of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) electrocatalysts with improved activity, stability, and selectivity. The rational design of surfaces to ensure these improved ORR catalytic requirements relies on the so-called "descriptors" (e.g., the role of covalent and noncovalent interactions on platinum surface active sites for ORR). Here, we demonstrate that through the molecular adsorption of melamine onto the Pt(111) surface [Pt(111)-Mad], the activity can be improved by a factor of 20 compared to bare Pt(111) for the ORR in a strongly adsorbing sulfuric acid solution. The Mad moieties act as "surface-blocking bodies," selectively hindering the adsorption of (bi)sulfate anions (well-known poisoning spectator of the Pt(111) active sites) while the ORR is unhindered. This modified surface is further demonstrated to exhibit improved chemical stability relative to Pt(111) patterned with cyanide species (CNad), previously shown by our group to have a similar ORR activity increase compared to bare Pt(111) in a sulfuric acid electrolyte, with Pt(111)-Mad retaining a greater than ninefold higher ORR activity relative to bare Pt(111) after extensive potential cycling as compared to a greater than threefold higher activity retained on a CNad-covered Pt(111) surface. We suggest that the higher stability of the Pt(111)-Mad interface stems from melamine's ability to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which effectively turns the melamine molecules into larger macromolecular entities with multiple anchoring sites and thus more difficult to remove.

Developing next-generation battery chemistries that move beyond traditional Li-ion systems is critical to enabling transformative advances in electrified transportation and grid-level energy storage. In this work, we provide the first evidence for common descriptors for improved reversibility of metal plating/stripping in nonaqueous electrolytes for multivalent ion batteries. Focusing first on the specific role of chloride (Cl-) in promoting electrochemical reversibility in multivalent systems, rotating disk (RDE) and ring-disk electrode (RRDE) investigations were performed utilizing a variety of divalent cations (Mg2+, Zn2+, and Cu2+) and the bis-(trifluoromethane sulfonyl) imide (TFSI-) anion. By introducing varying concentrations of Cl-, a cooperative effect is observed between TFSI- and Cl- that yields the more reversible behavior of mixed electrolytes relative to electrolytes containing only TFSI-. This effect is shown to be general for Mg, Zn, and Cu electrodeposition, and mechanistic understanding of the role of Cl- in improving reversibility of TFSI-based electrolytes is obtained through the combination of R(R)DE experimental results and density functional theory (DFT) evaluation of the redox activity and thermodynamic stability of various TFSI- and Cl-based solution complexes of metal ions. The cooperative anion effect is further generalized to other mixed-anion systems, where systematic variations in anion association strength predicted from DFT (i.e., Cl- > OTf- ≈ TFSI- > BF4- > PF6-) yield corresponding trends in redox potentials and improvements of ≥200 mV in the reversibility of metal deposition/dissolution. These results identify anion association strength as a common descriptor for the reversibility of divalent metal anodes and suggest a set of general design principles for developing new electrolytes with improved activity and stability.

By combining idealized experiments with realistic quantum mechanical simulations of an interface, we investigate electro-reduction reactions of HF, water and methanesulfonic acid (MSA) on the single crystal (111) facets of Au, Pt, Ir and Cu in organic aprotic electrolytes, 1 M LiPF6 in EC/EMC 3:7W (LP57), the aprotic electrolyte commonly used in Li-ion batteries, 1 M LiClO4 in EC/EMC 3:7W and 0.2 M TBAPF6 in 3 : 7 EC/EMC. In our previous work, we have established that LiF formation, accompanied by H2 evolution, is caused by a reduction of HF impurities and requires the presence of Li at the interface, which catalyzes the HF dissociation. In the present paper, we find that the measured potential of the electrochemical response for these reduction reactions correlates with the work function of the electrode surfaces and that the work function determines the potential for Li+ adsorption. The reaction path is investigated further by electrochemical simulations suggesting that the overpotential of the reaction is related to stabilizing the active structure of the interface having adsorbed Li+. Li+ is needed to facilitate the dissociation of HF which is the source of protons. Further experiments on other proton sources, water and methanesulfonic acid, show that if the hydrogen evolution involves negatively charged intermediates, F− or HO−, a cation at the interface can stabilize them and facilitate the reaction kinetics. When the proton source is already significantly dissociated (in the case of a strong acid), there is no negatively charged intermediate and thus the hydrogen evolution can proceed at much lower overpotentials. This reveals a situation where the overpotential for electrocatalysis is related to stabilizing the active structure of the interface, facilitating the reaction rather than providing the reaction energy., By combining idealized experiments with realistic quantum mechanical simulations of an interface, we investigate electroreduction reactions of HF, water and methanesulfonic acid on the single crystal (111) facets of Au, Pt, Ir and Cu in a variety of aprotic electrolytes.

Developing a new generation of battery chemistries is a critical challenge to moving beyond current Li-ion technologies. In this work, we introduce a surface-science-based approach for understanding the complex phenomena controlling the reversibility of Mg anodes for Mg-ion batteries. We identify the profound impact of trace levels of H2O (≤3 ppm) on the kinetics of Mg deposition and determine that passive films of MgO and Mg(OH)2 are formed only after Mg deposition ceases, rather than continuously during Mg reduction. We also find that Cl– inhibits passivation through the formation of adsorbed Cl– (Mg–Cl(ad)) and/or MgCl2 on the surface, as well as through a dynamic competition with H2O in the double layer. This surface-science-based approach goes well beyond Mg anodes, highlighting the need for more in-depth understanding of electrolyte chemistries before a new generation of efficient and reversible battery technologies can be realized.

Oxygen reduction and ethanol oxidation reactions were studied on Au(1 1 1), Pt(1 1 1) and Ir(1 1 1) in alkaline solutions containing sodium and/or lithium cations. By keeping the same (1 1 1) surface orientation and exploring oxophilicity trends and non-covalent interactions between OHad and alkali metal cations (AMCn+), we were able to gain deep insights into the multiple roles that OHad plays in these important electrocatalytic reactions. Cyclic voltammetry experiments revealed that OHad formation initiates at distinct electrode potentials, governed by the oxophilicity of the specific metal surface, with further OHad adlayer stabilization by non-covalent alkali-cation interactions and affecting the formation of a “true oxide” layer at higher electrode potentials. Although OHad is a simple spectator for the ORR, it promotes the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) at lower potentials and act as spectator at high OHad coverages. By changing the alkali metal cation at the interface (Li+) on more oxophilic surfaces, it was possible to promote the EOR even more, relative to Na+, without changing the product distribution for the reaction. This cation effect suggests that OHad–Li+(H2O)x clusters can stabilize the ethoxide adlayer, thus improving the EOR activity. Our results indicate the importance of the entire electrochemical interface in determining the electrocatalytic activity during reaction.

A significant challenge facing the development of new chemistries for multivalent batteries is the fact that many of the most promising electrolytes are incompatible with either metallic anodes or high voltage cathodes, both of which are required in order for such systems to compete with existing Li-ion batteries. For example, many Mg electrolytes rely on the presence of significant concentrations of Cl- to enable reversible metal plating/stripping at the anode, which is incompatible with oxide cathode materials due to parasitic reactions (e.g. oxide dissolution, Cl2 gas evolution) that take place at high voltage. More broadly speaking, investigations of multivalent anode chemistry are generally focused on a single working cation, making it difficult to identify and understand trends that may extend beyond individual systems and point to general design principles for developing new multivalent electrolyte chemistries. Focusing on the specific role of Cl- in promoting reversibility in multivalent systems, systematic rotating disk and ring-disk electrode (RDE and RRDE) investigations of metal plating/stripping were performed utilizing a variety of divalent cations (i.e., Mg2+, Zn2+ and Cu2+) and the bis-(trifluoromethane sulfonyl) imide (TFSI-) anion. By introducing varying concentrations of Cl-, a cooperative effect is observed between TFSI- and Cl- that yields the overall more reversible behavior of mixed electrolytes relative to electrolytes containing only TFSI-. This effect is shown to be general for Mg, Zn and Cu electrodeposition, and mechanistic understanding of the role of Cl- in improving reversibility of TFSI-based electrolytes is provided through the combination of R(R)DE experimental results with computational evaluation of the activity and stability of various TFSI- and Cl-based solution complexes. The cooperative anion effect can be further generalized to other electrolyte systems, pointing to the presence of common descriptors for the activity of divalent metal anodes and suggesting a set of general design principles for developing new multivalent electrolytes.

The future of high-voltage rechargeable batteries is closely tied to the fundamental understanding of the processes that lead to the potential-dependent degradation of electrode materials and organic electrolytes. To date, however, there have been no methods able to provide quantitative, in situ and in real time information about the electrode dissolution kinetics and concomitant electrolyte decomposition during charge/discharge. We describe the development of such a method, which is of both fundamental and technological significance. Our novel approach enables simultaneous and independent measurements of transition-metal cation dissolution rates from different oxide hosts (Co3+/4+ or Cr3+/4+), deintercalation kinetics of working cations (Mg2+), and the relative rate of electrolyte decomposition.

Made available in DSpace on 2018-12-11T16:39:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2015-08-12 U.S. Department of Energy Abstract We use the rotating ring disk (RRDE) method to study activity-selectivity relationships for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) on Pt(111) modified by various surface coverages of adsorbed CNad (ΘCNad). The results demonstrate that small variations in ΘCNad have dramatic effect on the ORR activity and peroxide production, resulting in volcano-like dependence with an optimal surface coverage of ΘCNad = 0.3 ML. These relationships can be simply explained by balancing electronic and ensemble effects of co-adsorbed CNad and adsorbed spectator species from the supporting electrolytes, without the need for intermediate adsorption energy arguments. Although this study has focused on the Pt(111)-CNad/H2SO4 interface, the results and insight gained here are invaluable for controlling another dimension in the properties of electrochemical interfaces. Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista Instituto de Quimica de Sao Carlos, Universidade de Sao Paulo Faculdade de Engenharia, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista U.S. Department of Energy: DE-AC02-06CH11357

Water and oxygen electrochemistry lies at the heart of interfacial processes controlling energy transformations in fuel cells, electrolyzers, and batteries. Here, by comparing results for the ORR obtained in alkaline aqueous media to those obtained in ultradry organic electrolytes with known amounts of H2O added intentionally, we propose a new rationale in which water itself plays an important role in determining the reaction kinetics. This effect derives from the formation of HOad···H2O (aqueous solutions) and LiO2···H2O (organic solvents) complexes that place water in a configurationally favorable position for proton transfer to weakly adsorbed intermediates. We also find that, even at low concentrations (

Improvements in the fundamental understanding of electrocatalysis have started to revolutionize the development of electrochemical interfaces for the efficient conversion of chemical energy into electricity, as well as for the utilization of electrons to produce new chemicals that then can be re-used in energy conversion systems. Here, some facets of the role of trace level of impurities (from 10−7 to 10−6 M) in electrocatalysis of the oxygen reduction reaction, hydrogen oxidation and evolution reactions, and CO oxidation reactions are explored on well-characterized platinum single crystal surfaces and high surface area materials in alkaline and acidic environments. Of particular interest is the effect of anions (e.g., Cl−, $$ {\text{NO}}_{ 3}^{ - } $$ ) and cations (i.e., Cu2+) present in the supporting electrolytes as well as surface defects (i.e., ad-islands) that are present on metal surfaces. The examples presented are chosen to demonstrate that a small level of impurities may play a crucial role in governing the reactivity of electrochemical interfaces.

The role of non-covalent interaction between both non-specifically adsorbed hydrated K+, Li+ and Ba2+ cations (M+) and hydroxyl species (M+-OHad) as well as underpotentially deposited Cu adatoms and OHad (Cuupd-OHad) on bulk CO oxidation (COb) is investigated on Pt(111) and Pt(100) in alkaline solutions. The effect of Cuupd-OHad on COb oxidation is observed almost at the reversible potential for CO oxidation, signaling that Cuupd-induced adsorption of OHad activates COb oxidation at very low overpotentials. In contrast, the effect of M+-OHad was found to be strongly dependent on the surface coverage of OHad on Pt; e.g., while no effect is found when the surface is pre-covered by adsorbed CO (COad), a discernable effect is observed on OHad pre-covered Pt surface.

The methods used to improve catalytic activity are well-established, however elucidating the factors that simultaneously control activity and stability is still lacking, especially for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) catalysts. Here, by studying fundamental links between the activity and stability of well-characterized monometallic and bimetallic oxides, we found that there is generally an inverse relationship between activity and stability. To overcome this limitation, we developed a new synthesis strategy that is based on tuning the near-surface composition of Ru and Ir elements by surface segregation, thereby resulting in the formation of a nanosegregated domain that balances the stability and activity of surface atoms. We demonstrate that a Ru0.5Ir0.5 alloy synthesized by using this method exhibits four-times higher stability than the best Ru-Ir oxygen evolution reaction materials, while still preserving the same activity.

Trends in the HER are studied on selected metals (M= Cu, Ag, Au, Pt, Ru, Ir, Ti) in acid and alkaline environments. We found that with the exception of Pt, Ir and Au, due to high coverage by spectator species on non-noble metal catalysts, experimentally established positions of Cu , Ag, Ru and Ti in the observed volcano relations are still uncertain. We also found that while in acidic solutions the M-Hupd binding energy most likely is controlling the activity trends, the trends in activity in alkaline solutions are controlled by a delicate balance between two descriptors: the M-Had interaction as well as the energetics required to dissociate water molecules. The importance of the second descriptor is confirmed by introducing bifunctional catalysts such as M modified by Ni(OH); e.g. while the latter serves to enhance catalytic decomposition of water, the metal sites are required for collecting and recombining the produced hydrogen intermediates.

Active in alkaline environment: The activity of nickel, silver, and copper catalysts for the electrochemical transformation of water to molecular hydrogen in alkaline solutions was enhanced by modification of the metal surfaces by Ni(OH)(2) (see picture; I = current density and η = overpotential). The hydrogen evolution reaction rate on a Ni electrode modified by Ni(OH)(2) nanoclusters is about four times higher than on a bare Ni surface.

Pt extended surfaces and nanoparticle electrodes are used to understand the origin of anomalous activities for electrocatalytic reactions in alkaline electrolytes as a function of cycling/time. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) of the surfaces before and after cycling in alkaline electrolytes was used to understand the morphology of the impurities and their impact on the catalytic sites. The nature of the contaminant species is identified as 3d-transition metal cations, and the formation of hydr(oxy)oxides of these elements is established as the main reason for the observed behavior. We find that, while for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) the blocking of the sites by the undesired 3d-transition metal hydr(oxy)oxide species leads to deactivation of the reaction activities, the CO oxidation reaction and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) can have beneficial effects from the same impurities, the latter being dependent on the exact nature of the adsorbing spe...

The role of noncovalent interactions in the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on Ru, Ir, and Ru0.5Ir0.5 electrodes is studied in alkaline solution containing K+, Li+, and Ba2+ cations. We found that noncovalent interaction between hydrated cations and covalently bonded OHad increases in the same order as specific charge density of the corresponding cation (K+

Design and synthesis of materials for efficient electrochemical transformation of water to molecular hydrogen and of hydroxyl ions to oxygen in alkaline environments is of paramount importance in reducing energy losses in water–alkali electrolysers. Here, using 3d-M hydr(oxy)oxides, with distinct stoichiometries and morphologies in the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) regions, we establish the overall catalytic activities for these reaction as a function of a more fundamental property, a descriptor, OH–M2+δ bond strength (0 ≤ δ ≤ 1.5). This relationship exhibits trends in reactivity (Mn < Fe < Co < Ni), which is governed by the strength of the OH–M2+δ energetic (Ni < Co < Fe < Mn). These trends are found to be independent of the source of the OH, either the supporting electrolyte (for the OER) or the water dissociation product (for the HER). The successful identification of these electrocatalytic trends provides the foundation for rational design of ‘active sites’ for practical alkaline HER and OER electrocatalysts. Efficient electrochemical transformation of water to molecular hydrogen and of hydroxyl ions to oxygen in alkaline environments is important for reducing energy losses in water–alkali electrolysers. Insight into the activities of hydr(oxy)oxides on platinum catalyst surfaces for hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions should prove significant for designing practical alkaline electrocatalysts.

This Letter reveals new findings on the influence of noncovalent interactions on the electrochemical interface. Using surface X-ray scattering, we demonstrate that the barium cations are located at 3.4 A away from the surface, suggesting that they are partially hydrated, though not adsorbed at the surface. The effect of the cation on the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) ranges from significant (Pt) to little (Au), depending on the nature of the metal and cation. Finally, we show that these results, as obtained on well-defined single-crystal surfaces, correlate well with observations on high surface area nanoparticle catalysts.

Chemically modifying platinum with calix[4]arene yields a highly stable anode catalyst that effectively suppresses the oxidation reduction reaction without altering the maximum activity for the hydrogen oxidation reaction (see picture, Pt blue, C gray, O red, S yellow). This behavior extends from long-range-ordered stepped single-crystal surfaces to nanocatalysts.

The role of alkali cations (Li(+), Na(+), K(+), Cs(+), and Be(2+)) on the blank voltammetric response and the oxidative stripping of carbon monoxide from stepped Pt single-crystal electrodes in alkaline media has been investigated by cyclic voltammetry. A strong influence of the nature of the cation on both the blank voltammetric profile and the CO oxidation is observed and related to the influence of the cation on the specific adsorption of OH on the platinum surface. Especially Li(+) and Be(2+) cations markedly affect the adsorption of OH and thereby have a significant promoting effect on CO(ads) oxidation. The voltammetric experiments suggest that, on Pt(111), the influence of Li(+) (and Be(2+)) is primarily through a weakening of the repulsive interactions between the OH in the OH adlayer, whereas in the presence of steps also, the onset of OH adsorption is at a lower potential, both on steps and on terraces.

The kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is studied at metal-supporting electrolyte-Nafion three-phase interfaces. We first demonstrate that the sulfonate anions of Nafion are specifically adsorbed on a wide range of surfaces ranging from Pt(hkl) single-crystal surfaces, Pt-poly, Pt-skin [produced on a Pt(3)Ni(111) surface by annealing in ultrahigh vacuum, UHV] to high-surface-area nanostructured thin-film (NSTF) catalysts. The surface coverage by sulfonate and the strength of the Pt-sulfonate interaction are strongly dependent on the geometry and the nature of the Pt surface atoms. Also, they are found to behave analogous to (bi)sulfate anion-specific adsorption on these surfaces, where for the Pt(hkl) surfaces, the trend is Pt(111)>Pt(110)>Pt(100) and for the Pt-skin surface on Pt(3)Ni(111), the interaction strength is found to be Pt-skin

A voltammetric fingerprinting approach has been used to probe the nature of Pt−Nafion three phase interfaces for Pt(hkl) and polycrystalline platinum surfaces. Nature of adsorbing species is identified as the sulfonate anions via CO charge displacement technique. The affinity for the sulfonate anions to adsorb on the electrode surface is investigated. Adsorption strength of the sulfonate anions with the electrode surface is compared with other strongly adsorbing anions such as (bi) sulfates and chlorides. Various factors that influence the adsorption properties of the sulfonate anions are studied. Nature and strength of the anion interaction with various surface geometries is also discussed. A physical model is presented to describe the observed phenomena.

A carbon fiber microelectrode (CFME) was used for characterization of the nanoparticle catalysts as an alternative to the well-established rotating disk electrode (RDE) method. We found that the novel CFME method yielded comparable results to the RDE method when investigating the adsorption/desorption processes as well the specific activity for reactions such as the oxygen reduction reaction. Its major advantage over the RDE method is a fast sample preparation and rapid measurement, reducing significantly the time of a single sample characterization from 2-3 h to a favorable 5-10 min.

Monodisperse Pt3Co nanoparticles with size controlled from 3 to 9 nm have been synthesized through an organic solvothermal approach and applied as electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction. Electrochemical study shows that the Pt3Co nanoparticles are highly active for the oxygen reduction reaction and the activity is size-dependent. The optimal size for maximal mass activity was established to be around 4.5 nm by balancing the electrochemically active surface area and specific activity.

Some issues of the current state of understanding in the surface electrochemistry are discussed, with emphases on the role of specifically adsorbing anions in hydrogen adsorption and oxide formation, adsorption and ordering of molecular adsorbates and metal ions, metal deposition, restructuring and stability of surface atoms, and kinetics of electrochemical reactions.

Hydrogen adsorption isotherms, evaluated by combination of cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry, are reported on Pt(111) and Pt(100) surfaces in 0.1 M HClO4. We found that at E > 0.05 V Pt(111) and Pt(100) are only partially covered by the adsorbed hydrogen (Had). On both surfaces, a full monolayer of the adsorbed hydrogen is completed at −0.1 V, i.e. the adsorption of atomic hydrogen is observed in the hydrogen evolution potential region. We also found, that the activity of the hydrogen oxidation reaction is mirrored by the shape of the hydrogen adsorption isotherms, implying that Had is in fact a spectator in the HOR. Keywords: Hydrogen adsorption, H-UPD, Adsorption isotherms, HOR

The aim of this report is to scrutinize the thin-film rotating disc electrode (TF-RDE) method for investigating the electrocatalytic activity of high surface area catalysts. Special emphasis is given to the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) on carbon-supported platinum catalysts. On the basis of measurements on four different Pt catalyst samples with various average particle sizes, it is demonstrated in detail how the intrinsic properties of the catalyst, i.e., the mass activity (A/gPt) and the specific activity (A/m2Pt), are evaluated. The potential sources of error are critically discussed and guidelines for the measurements are given. Furthermore, the specific ORR activities determined for the different catalyst samples are analyzed and compared to polycrystalline Pt. The previously reported effect of the particle size on the specific activity for the ORR is interpreted on the basis of the shift in the potential of zero total charge and the concomitant alteration of the adsorption properties.

Efficient chemical transformations in energy conversion and storage systems depend on understanding superoxide anion (O2–) electrochemistry at atomic and molecular levels. Here, a combination of experimental and theoretical techniques are used for rationalizing, and ultimately understanding, the complexity of superoxide anion (electro)chemistry in organic environments. By exploring the O2 + e– ↔ O2– reaction on well-characterized metal single crystals (Au, Pt, Ir), Pt single crystal modified with a single layer of graphene (Graphene@Pt(111)), and glassy carbon (GC) in 1,2 dimethoxyethane (DME) electrolytes, we demonstrate that (i) the reaction is an outer-sphere process; (ii) the reaction product O2– can “attack” any part of the DME molecule, i.e., the C–O bond via nucleophilic reaction and the C–H bond via radical hydrogen abstraction; (iii) the adsorption of carbon-based decomposition products and the extent of formation of a “solid electrolyte interface” (“SEI”) increases in the same order as the react...

Relationships between the surface coverage of spectator (blocking) species and the rate of the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR), the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and the bulk oxidation of dissolved CO on Pt(100) and Pt(111) single crystals in acidic electrolytes has been probed by cyclic voltammetry, in situ surface X-ray scattering (SXS), and ex situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) techniques. It is shown that the surface coverage by spectator species during the HOR and the ORR are the same as for the corresponding coverage obtained in the inert (Ar-saturated) environment. This observation is consistent with the proposition that the availability of active sites for H2 and O2 is determined almost entirely by the coverage of adsorbates from the supporting electrolyte and not by the active intermediates. Related electrochemical-SXS studies undertaken for bulk CO oxidation reveal that the maximum rate above the ignition potential is reached on a surface that is covered by ≈90% of an ordered CO adlay...

In the present study, we used a surface-science approach to establish a functional link between activity and stability of monometallic oxides during the OER in acidic media. We found that the most active oxides (Au ≪ PtIrRu ≪ Os) are, in fact, the least stable (Au ≫ PtIrRu ≫ Os) materials. We suggest that the relationships between stability and activity are controlled by both the nobility of oxides as well as by the density of surface defects. This functionality is governed by the nature of metal cations and the potential transformation of a stable metal cation with a valence state of n = +4 to unstable metal cation with n+4. A practical consequence of such a close relationship between activity and stability is that the best materials for the OER should balance stability and activity in such a way that the dissolution rate is neither too fast nor too slow.

Three of the fundamental catalytic limitations that have plagued the electrochemical production of hydrogen for decades still remain: low efficiency, short lifetime of catalysts and a lack of low-cost materials. Here, we address these three challenges by establishing and exploring an intimate functional link between the reactivity and stability of crystalline (CoS2 and MoS2) and amorphous (CoSx and MoSx) hydrogen evolution catalysts. We propose that Co(2+) and Mo(4+) centres promote the initial discharge of water (alkaline solutions) or hydronium ions (acid solutions). We establish that although CoSx materials are more active than MoSx they are also less stable, suggesting that the active sites are defects formed after dissolution of Co and Mo cations. By combining the higher activity of CoSx building blocks with the higher stability of MoSx units into a compact and robust CoMoSx chalcogel structure, we are able to design a low-cost alternative to noble metal catalysts for efficient electrocatalytic production of hydrogen in both alkaline and acidic environments.

The development of hydrogen-based energy sources as viable alternatives to fossil-fuel technologies has revolutionized clean energy production using fuel cells. However, to date, the slow rate of the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) in alkaline environments has hindered advances in alkaline fuel cell systems. Here, we address this by studying the trends in the activity of the HOR in alkaline environments. We demonstrate that it can be enhanced more than fivefold compared to state-of-the-art platinum catalysts. The maximum activity is found for materials (Ir and Pt₀.₁Ru₀.₉) with an optimal balance between the active sites that are required for the adsorption/dissociation of H₂ and for the adsorption of hydroxyl species (OHad). We propose that the more oxophilic sites on Ir (defects) and PtRu material (Ru atoms) electrodes facilitate the adsorption of OHad species. Those then react with the hydrogen intermediates (Had) that are adsorbed on more noble surface sites.

Controlled arrangement of nanometer-scale Ni(OH)2 clusters on platinum electrode surfaces increases the catalytic activity for the hydrogen evolution reaction in KOH solution by a factor of eight relative to state-of-the-art metal and metal oxide catalysts.

Improving the sluggish kinetics for the electrochemical reduction of water to molecular hydrogen in alkaline environments is one key to reducing the high overpotentials and associated energy losses in water-alkali and chlor-alkali electrolyzers. We found that a controlled arrangement of nanometer-scale Ni(OH)(2) clusters on platinum electrode surfaces manifests a factor of 8 activity increase in catalyzing the hydrogen evolution reaction relative to state-of-the-art metal and metal-oxide catalysts. In a bifunctional effect, the edges of the Ni(OH)(2) clusters promoted the dissociation of water and the production of hydrogen intermediates that then adsorbed on the nearby Pt surfaces and recombined into molecular hydrogen. The generation of these hydrogen intermediates could be further enhanced via Li(+)-induced destabilization of the HO-H bond, resulting in a factor of 10 total increase in activity.

The slow rate of the oxygen reduction reaction in the phosphoric acid fuel cell is the main factor limiting its wide application. Here, we present an approach that can be used for the rational design of cathode catalysts with potential use in phosphoric acid fuel cells, or in any environments containing strongly adsorbing tetrahedral anions. This approach is based on molecular patterning of platinum surfaces with cyanide adsorbates that can efficiently block the sites for adsorption of spectator anions while the oxygen reduction reaction proceeds unhindered. We also demonstrate that, depending on the supporting electrolyte anions and cations, on the same CN-covered Pt(111) surface, the oxygen reduction reaction activities can range from a 25-fold increase to a 50-fold decrease. This behaviour is discussed in the light of the role of covalent and non-covalent interactions in controlling the ensemble of platinum active sites required for high turn over rates of the oxygen reduction reaction.

The influence of temperature changes in water-based electrolytes on the atomic structure at the electrochemical interface has been studied using in situ surface X-ray scattering (SXS) in combination with cyclic voltammetry. Results are presented for the potential-dependent surface reconstruction of Au(100), the adsorption and ordering of bromide anions on the Au(100) surface, and the adsorption and oxidation of CO on Pt(111) in pure HClO(4) and in the presence of anions. These systems represent a range of structural phenomena, namely metal surface restructuring and ordering transitions in both nonreactive spectator species and reactive adsorbate layers. The key effect of temperature appears to be in controlling the kinetics of the surface reactions that involve oxygenated species, such as hydroxyl adsorption and oxide formation. The results indicate that temperature effects should be considered in the determination of structure-function relationships in many important electrochemical systems.

The classic models of metal electrode-electrolyte interfaces generally focus on either covalent interactions between adsorbates and solid surfaces or on long-range electrolyte-metal electrostatic interactions. Here we demonstrate that these traditional models are insufficient. To understand electrocatalytic trends in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) and the oxidation of methanol on platinum surfaces in alkaline electrolytes, non-covalent interactions must be considered. We find that non-covalent interactions between hydrated alkali metal cations M(+)(H(2)O)(x) and adsorbed OH (OH(ad)) species increase in the same order as the hydration energies of the corresponding cations (Li(+) >> Na(+) > K(+) > Cs(+)) and also correspond to an increase in the concentration of OH(ad)-M(+)(H(2)O)(x) clusters at the interface. These trends are inversely proportional to the activities of the ORR, the HOR and the oxidation of methanol on platinum (Cs(+) > K(+) > Na(+) >> Li(+)), which suggests that the clusters block the platinum active sites for electrocatalytic reactions.

Corrosion of copper in ammonia solutions is significantly affected by a large number of parameters such as the concentration of ammonia, pH, temperature, concentration of Cu 2+ , the presence/absence of dissolved oxygen, the chemical nature, and the concentration of the anion but also by selected corrosion products, in particular, Cu + , various adsorbed intermediates, and finally passive films. In the present work we try to elucidate the corrosion of copper in a wide potential window [from ―1.4 to 0 vs mercury/mercurous sulfate electrode (MSE)] and in a broad range of concentrations of various species (0.2-3.5 mol/L NH 3 , 0-0.1 mol/L Cu 2+ , pH 10-12.5). Then, we focus on the first peak occurring within ―1.0 to ―0.6 V vs MSE with the aim to explain the underlying mechanism. We show that the reaction order of the dissolution reaction with respect to ammonia is 2. We further show that using conventional electrochemical methods in combination with an optical method (scanning electron microscopy), a two-step (electrochemical-chemical) reaction yielding Cu 2 O is identified as the most likely passivation mechanism, consistent with previous assumptions by other authors. Finally, we confirm this mechanism by performing impedance analysis at various experimental conditions.