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To understand the life history strategies of diving beetles, it is important to obtain information regarding their flight capacities. We estimated the flight capacities of three dytiscid species in...

Citrus Research International; Hortgro Science; South African Table Grape Industry and National Research Foundation.

The important role of semiochemicals in the interactions between plants and insects has been extensively investigated. The volatiles produced by oak trees are thought to attract the ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus (Murayama), which causes wilt disease in Quercus trees, resulting in widespread damage. In the present study, we hypothesized that (a) P. quercivorus is attracted to the leaf volatiles emitted by host trees and (b) the response of P. quercivorus to leaf volatiles is affected by flight. An experiment was performed to survey the preferences of both sexes of P. quercivorus for the leaf volatiles of Quercus crispula Blume at various stages of leaf deterioration, represented by different number of days after cutting. Additionally, the effect of flight on both sexes was evaluated by testing the beetle flight on a flight mill. The results showed that P. quercivorus was attracted to the volatiles emitted from fresh leaves and was not attracted to those emitted from dry leaves. This suggests that leaf volatiles from healthy hosts are primary attractants for P. quercivorus. Further, males exhibited increased olfactory responses to leaf volatiles as their flight duration increased, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in females. These results suggest that the different ecological roles of the sexes contribute to differences in olfactory responses.

Bradysia odoriphaga Yang & Zhang (Diptera: Sciaridae) is an important pest of Chinese chives. Information on the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on the flight performance of B. odoriphaga is crucial for understanding the pest’s ability to disperse and migrate. In this study, the effects of sex and air temperature on the flight performance of B. odoriphaga imagoes were assessed by tethering individual imagoes to computerized flight mills for a 10-h experiment. The results showed that the percentage of imagoes that flew a particular distance gradually decreased as flight distance increased. The percentage of imagoes was significantly higher for males than females when the flight distance was

Dopamine (DA), one of the biogenic amines, has been suggested to regulate the motor activities of various animals. In honey bees, it has been reported to promote locomotor activity in queens, workers, and males, and to regulate the flight activity of workers and males. The role of DA in the flight activity of queens, however, has not yet been investigated. In this study, we tested the roles of DA in the flight activity of virgin queens. We first injected the DA receptor antagonist flupenthixol (10−2 M or 10−3 M) into the abdomens of 6-day-old virgin queens and measured the time to flight initiation. The same experiment was performed in workers, to confirm previous findings and compare them to the virgin queens. We then injected 10−2 M flupenthixol into the queens and quantified their flight activity using a flight mill. The workers were deemed unsuitable for this round of experimentation. In both queens and workers, flupenthixol injection significantly delayed flight initiation. In flight mill experiments, flupenthixol decreased the flight performance of the queens in terms of distance, duration, and velocity. These results suggest the involvement of DA in the flight activity of virgin queens and workers, and indicate that DA is a key neuroactive substance in motor system activation with conserved effects among honey bee queens, workers, and males.

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), commonly known as Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), is an invasive insect pest and the vector of the bacterium causing Huanglongbing (HLB), a lethal disease of citrus. In the United States, ACP has been established in all citrus-producing zones, all of which have different environmental conditions. The spread of ACP and, more importantly, HLB, has progressed differently depending on the state, with more rapid spread in Florida and Texas than in California. Climatic variations between the regions are likely a strong factor in the difference in the rate of spread. Despite this, it is unknown how the flight capacity of D. citri is influenced by high temperatures (&gt, 30 °C) and subsequently, low humidity experienced in California but not in Texas or Florida. In this study, by using a custom-made, temperature-controlled flight mill arena, we assessed the effect of high temperatures on the flight capacity and flight propensity of D. citri under low (20–40%) and high (76–90%) relative humidity conditions. We found that temperature and humidity influence the propensity to engage in short or long-distance flight events. Psyllids exposed to temperatures above 43 °C only performed short flights (˂60 s), and a high relative humidity significantly decrease the proportion of long flights (≥60 s) at 26 and 40 °C. The flight capacity for insects who engaged in short and long flights was significantly affected by temperature but not by humidity. For long flyers, temperature (in the 26–43 °C range) was negatively correlated with distance flown and flight duration. The most favorable temperature for long dispersion was 26 °C, with suboptimal temperatures in the range of 32–37 °C and the least favorable temperatures at 40 and 43 °C. In conclusion, D. citri is able to fly in a broad range of temperatures and efficiently fly in high and low humidity. However, temperatures above 40 °C, similar to those experienced in semi-arid environments like Southern California or Arizona, are detrimental for its flight capacity.

Simple Summary The South American palm weevil, Rhynchophorus palmarum, is an invasive pest that has killed thousands of ornamental palms in San Diego County in California, USA. Emerging management plans for this pest need to consider the flight capabilities of this insect, which are not well understood. To address this shortcoming, flight mills, a type of computerized insect “merry-go round” that measures how far weevils can fly in the laboratory, were used to quantify the flight distances of 101 weevils that were flown repeatedly over the course of their lifetimes. The results indicate that weevils are strong flyers capable of flying numerous times before dying of natural causes. Over their lifetimes, weevils, on average, covered distances that cumulatively totaled >220 km. One female weevil flew an impressive cumulative distance of approximately 806 km over the course of nine consecutive flights before dying. Abstract The life time flight capabilities of an invasive palm pest, Rhynchophorus palmarum, were assessed using flight mill assays under controlled conditions in the laboratory. A total of 101 weevils were used for experiments and subjected to repeat flight assays. A total of 17 flight trials were run, of which the first 14 provided useful data prior to weevil death. Male and female weevils exhibited a strong capacity for repeat long distance flights. Flight metrics of interest were not affected by weevil sex or mating status. Cumulative lifetime flight distances for male and female R. palmarum averaged ~268 km and ~220 km, respectively. A maximum lifetime cumulative flight distance of ~758 km and ~806 km was recorded for one male of unknown mating status and one unmated female weevil, respectively. Dispersal data for individual flights (i.e., trials 1 through 9, 10–14 combined) and all flight trial data (i.e., flights 1–14 combined) exhibited platykurtic distributions. The results presented here may have important implications for modeling the spread of this invasive pest and for the development of monitoring and management plans.

[Figure][1] A mountain pine beetle ( Dendroctonus ponderosae ) flying circuits in the flight mill. Bark beetles are the forester's nemesis. Burrowing beneath the bark of trees to feed and lay their eggs, the beetles weed out weakened trees naturally. However, in the rolling lodgepole pine

Dispersal is a key component in the population ecology and dynamics of insects and remains one of the most difficult and intractable ecological processes to study in the field. As a consequence, many researchers have looked to laboratory methods for investigating the myriad factors that govern and impact an insect’s ability to move within its environment. A key tool in this effort since at least the early 1950s has been the insect flight mill. Nearly 260 studies have been published using flight mills covering 214 species in 61 families and 9 orders. This review explores the methodology and technology of tethered flight in insects using flight mills. The goal is to provide the reader with a historical context of the approach, an understanding of the available tools and technology, background on how best to apply these tools through a comparative lens, and to summarize the wide breadth of factors that have been explored to further our knowledge of insect flight behavior. Overall, it is hoped that the interested reader will understand the limits and benefits of flight mills and will know where to find the resources, and perhaps collaborators, to pursue this line of study.

High-dose and refuge are the most important strategies for delaying resistance evolution in Bt crops. Insecticide sprays in refuge areas could be necessary and may limit refuge effectiveness. Here, we evaluated the sublethal effects of two diamide insecticides (chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide) on Chloridea virescens life history traits and flight performance. Sublethal concentrations of chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide increased larval and pre-pupal development times and decreased larval weight, flubendiamide increased pupal development times. Chlorantraniliprole increased adult male longevity and reduced female fertility, while flubendiamide reduced fecundity. Overall life table parameters were negatively impacted by both treatments. Males exposed to either insecticide showed significant reductions in flight duration and distance for unsustained flights (&lt, 30 min). The duration and distance of the first flights were reduced when exposed to chlorantraniliprole. Sustained flights (&gt, 30 min) were generally unaffected by insecticide exposure and both sexes flew &gt, 6400 m in a single flight. The sublethal effects of flubendiamide and chlorantraniliprole on C. virescens&rsquo, population dynamics could lead to generation asynchrony and provide insufficient susceptible moths when sprayed on refuge crops. However, the distance and duration of flight may still be sufficient to ensure mixing of potentially resistant and susceptible populations from refuge plots.

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), an invasive beetle from Asia, spreads through human-mediated movement and active flight. The effects of adult feeding and overwintering conditions on A. planipennis energy reserves (e.g., lipid, glycogen, and sugars) and flight are poorly understood. We conjectured that the potential energetic demands associated with the production of cryoprotectants might affect dispersal capacity and partially explain slower spread of A. planipennis in Minnesota than in the other states. Two studies sought to measure the effects of adult feeding on lipid content and flight capacity. Adult A. planipennis were fed shamel ash, Fraxinus uhdei Wenzig, leaves for 0-20 d after emergence, and half were flown on a custom flight mill for 24 h, before being frozen for comparative lipid analysis with a control group. The second study compared the effects of adult feeding on energy reserves and flight capacity of A. planipennis that were originally from St. Paul, Minnesota but overwintered in infested logs placed in Grand Rapids, Minnesota (low winter temperature, -34°C) or St. Paul, Minnesota (-26.3°C). Live adults consumed foliage at a constant rate, but lipid content (percentage of fresh mass) did not change with increases in feeding or flight. Adult glycogen content declined with flight and increased only slightly with feeding. Overwintering location affected survival rates but not energy reserves or flight capacity. These results suggest that the flight capacity of A. planipennis is largely determined before emergence, with no differences in energy reserves after cryoprotectant investment.

The red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus; Olivier, 1790) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) has recently become the most severe palm pest in the Mediterranean basin. Its dispersal was initially supported mainly by the acquisition of infested trees, but was further facilitated by the weevils’ flight. Therefore, knowledge of weevils’ flight capacity is a key element in evaluating their dispersal capability and setting preventive actions in advance. We tested the weevils’ flight ability in repeated flights that were 7–10 days apart by computer-monitored flight mill with a seesaw design. Tested flight parameters were: flight distance, duration, and velocity, number of flights, and cumulative flight distance, of virgin and mated weevils of both sexes. Our tests found no differences in flight distance between virgin and mated individuals or between sexes. Weevils showed flight capability between the ages of 2 and 97 days, and covered up to 315 km of cumulative distance during this time. In addition, we tested the effect of age of flight initiation and found that old starters perform fewer flights than young starters, and are thus assumed to possess inferior dispersal capabilities.

We compared the flight activity of Xyleborus glabratus Eichhoff, vector and symbiont of the causal agent of laurel wilt disease (Raffaelea lauricola), with a native species Monarthrum mali (Fitch) using flight mills. Flight mills were operated either for 24 h or for three 3-h time intervals. During the 3-h interval experiment, the shortest time to flight initiation for X. glabratus occurred at 1600-1900 hours. The average flight time and total flying distance during 1600-2100 hours were also higher than those quantified during the other two recording times investigated. However, total flight duration and proportion of fliers was highest at 1000-1300 hours. We compared several flight parameters. About 64.0% of tested X. glabratus flew

Summary We present the circuitry design and plans of a photogate and accompanying Arduino board with coding for a data recording program used with a flight mill apparatus. These are being used to test the flight capacity of Halyomorpha halys Stal (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) under various environmental conditions.

Fluorescent powders are one of the most common external markers used to study mosquito behavior and ecology. For their reliable and practical use, it is important to evaluate their effect on biological parameters such as survival, blood-feeding, and mobility. We evaluated the effect of five different fluorescent powders (Day-Glo ® ECO Series) on the survival of different age cohorts, blood-feeding success, and tethered flight speed on Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus) adult females. For survival analysis, three cohorts (2–5, 6–9 and 10–13 days old) were marked and mortality recorded until all died. To examine the effect of fluorescent powders on female response to blood-feeding, the proportions of unfed, partially fed, and fully engorged females, after being exposed to host blood under two different time sets (20 and 40 min.), were compared. Their impact on female tethered flight speed was evaluated recording their flight for 30 min. with a flight mill. Survival distributions between treatments were not significantly different within each cohort. Blood-feeding was not significantly different among marked or unmarked females at both times of blood exposure, with the exception of Signal Green-ECO 18 and Ultra Violet- ECO 20 (at 20 and 40 min.), in which a higher proportion of partially fed females was observed compared to control females. In relation to flight performance, no statistically significant difference in mean tethered flight speed (m/s), among marked and unmarked mosquito groups, was observed. Our results indicate that the tested powders and application method have few significant impacts on Ae. aegypti survival, blood-feeding success and flight performance, and are thus suitable for investigations of mosquito biology in the environment.

Mamestra brassicae L. is an important, regionally migratory pest of vegetable crops in Europe and Asia. Its migratory activity contributes significantly to population outbreaks, causing severe crop yield losses. Because an in-depth understanding of flight performance is key to revealing migratory patterns, here we used a computer-linked flight mill and stroboscope to study the flight ability and wingbeat frequency (WBF) of M. brassicae in relation to sex, age, temperature, and relative humidity (RH). The results showed that age significantly affected the flight ability and WBF of M. brassicae, and 3-d-old individuals performed the strongest performance (total flight distance: 45.6 ± 2.5 km; total flight duration: 9.3 ± 0.3 h; WBF: 44.0 ± 0.5 Hz at 24°C and 75% RH). The age for optimal flight was considered to be 2–3 d old. Temperature and RH also significantly affected flight ability and WBF; flight was optimal from 23°C to 25°C and 64–75% RH. Because M. brassicae thus has great potential to undertake long-distance migration, better knowledge of its flight behavior and migration will help establish a pest forecasting and early-warning system.

In the presence of wind or background image motion, flies are able to maintain a constant retinal slip velocity via regulating flight speed to the extent permitted by their locomotor capacity. Here we investigated the retinal slip compensation of tethered blue-bottle flies (Calliphora vomitoria) flying semi-freely along an annular corridor in a magnetically levitated flight mill enclosed by two motorized cylindrical walls. We perturbed the flies’ retinal slip via spinning the cylindrical walls, generating bilaterally averaged retinal slip perturbations from -0.3 to 0.3 m·s−1 (or -116.4 to 116.4 deg.·s−1) When the perturbation was less than ∼0.1 m·s−1 (38.4 deg.·s−1), the flies successfully compensated the perturbations and maintained a retinal slip velocity by adjusting their airspeed up to 20%. However, with greater retinal slip perturbation, the flies’ compensation became saturated, as the flies’ airspeed plateaued, indicating that they were unable to further maintain a constant retinal slip velocity. The compensation gain, i.e., the ratio of airspeed compensation and retinal slip perturbation, depended on the spatial frequency of the grating patterns, being the largest at 12 m−1 (0.04 deg.−1).

Holotrichia parallela damages seriously on peanut (Arachis hypogaea) pods. Elucidation of its flight and walking performance in the presence of different plants may provide an insight in its host selection process and an explanation to its strong olfactory preference to an attractive nonhost, castor bean (Ricinus communis). We determined the relationships among flight performance, mate choice, and body weight of H. parallela beetles, and then investigated their flight and walking patterns in the presence of known hosts and attractive nonhost plants using a flight mill and a locomotion compensator, respectively. Body weights were not related to mating success, regardless of sex. The flight proportion of selected females drastically decreased compared with nonselected females, nonselected males, and selected males. Within mated males, heavier individuals exhibited poorer flight performance than lighter ones. In flight bioassay, peanut showed an arrestment effect on virgin females. For walking activity factors (distance, time, and speed), the host plants velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) and Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila) elicited the strongest responses in females and males, respectively. Interestingly, the most preferred adult host, Siberian elm, and the nonhost, castor bean, elicited the highest values of two orientation factors (orientation and upwind length) in females. The chemical similarity hypothesis, which states that feeding or oviposition of insects mistakenly on nonhost can be traced to their chemical similarity to actual hosts, could explain the attraction of H. parallela to castor bean.

The Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae), is the vector of the bacterium responsible for huanglongbing, a deadly plant disease affecting citrus worldwide. We investigated the effects of wind direction and speed on flight duration and direction of D. citri, as well as the effects of temperature and barometric pressure on sustained flight duration of D. citri. Experiments were performed with laboratory flight mills and wind tunnels. Flight activity of D. citri increased with increasing temperature. Of the few insects that flew at 18°C, most performed short duration flights (60 s). When exposed to temperatures between 21 and 28°C, D. citri performed long duration flights (60 s). In addition, the distance covered increased with temperature. Interestingly, males were more sensitive to cold temperature and flew significantly shorter distances than females at 21 and 25°C. Barometric pressure recorded before and during the flight mill experiment suggested that decreasing pressure reduced distance flown by D. citri. Flight direction was strongly influenced by wind. In wind tunnel experiments where psyllids were challenged to reach citrus leaf flush positioned either downwind or upwind, most D. citri moved downwind when exposed to continuous airflow. In a subsequent experiment, we challenged psyllids to pulsed wind blowing at higher speeds. In this case, most psyllids progressed upwind, suggesting upwind movement by psyllids during pauses within pulsed airflow. Collectively, the results indicate that D. citri are able to modify their flight behavior in response to abiotic factors.

Adult Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) captured in pheromone-baited traps in commercial date palm orchards in the Al Ahsaa Directorate, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, were used in computerized flight mill studies to determine the flight characteristics of this highly invasive and destructive palm pest. Flight mill studies were run at three different time periods, winter (December), spring (March), and summer (May). Of the 192 weevils tethered to flight mills ∼30% failed to fly > 1 km. Of those weevils flying > 1 km (n = 139), 55% flew > 10 km, and of these flyers 5% flew > 50 km in 24 h. Flying weevils exhibited an average weight loss of 20-30% and nonflying control weevils lost ∼9-13% body weight in 24 h. Male and female weevils flying in summer (average laboratory temperature was ∼27°C) flew the longest average distances (∼25-35 km), exhibited highest weight reductions (∼30%), and greatest mortality rates (∼80%). Consequently, time of year not weevil sex or color morph had a consistent and significant effect on flight activity, weight loss, and survivorship rates. Flight activity was predominantly diurnal commencing around 5:00 a.m. and peaking between 9-11:00 a.m. before tapering off. The distribution of flight distances combined across season and sex was mesokurtic (i.e., normally distributed).

Brown marmorated stink bug,Halyomorpha halys(Stål), is a highly polyphagous invasive species attacking both cultivated and wild plants increasing its threat to ecosystems as a global pest. However, dispersal biology of this invasive species is not well understood. This study evaluated the flight capacity and behavior ofH. halysunder laboratory, semi-field, and field conditions. Flight mills were used to measure the baseline flight capacity of adults collected year round from the field and included both foraging and overwintering populations. The effects of abiotic conditions such as wind speed and temperatures on the free flight parameters ofH. halyswere evaluated under semi-field and field conditions. The mean flight distances over a 22-h period were 2442 and 2083 m for male and female, respectively. Most individuals (89%) flew H. halysincreased after emergence from overwintering sites in spring and reached their highest point in June. The incidence of take off byH. halyswas significantly affected by the wind speed; when provided with still air conditions, 83% of individuals took off, but the rates decreased to −1. The incidence of take off byH. halyswas significantly affected by ambient temperature and light intensity in the field, whereas relative humidity and insect sex did not. When the temperature was at 10–15°C, 3% of individuals took off, but the proportion ofH. halystaking flight increased to 61, 84, and 87% at 15–20, 20–25, and 25–30°C, respectively. In the field, prevailing flight direction was biased toward the opposite direction of the sun's position, especially in the morning. The implications ofH. halysflight biology are discussed in the context of developing monitoring and management programs for this invasive species.

We examined the propensity for flight initiation and flight capability of the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, Hemiptera: Liviidae) with a flight mill. We measured continuous flight by D. citri for up to 3 h, which equated to a distance of ≈2.4 km. We compared the flight capability of D. citri depending on their sex and morphotype (color of abdomen). Two general morphotypes exist within this species: green-blue and gray-brown. We observed that ≈32% of psyllids from the green-blue morphotype tested exhibited long durations of flight (>60 s); whereas

Autographa nigrisigna (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is the target species of the mating disruptant for vegetables, Confuser V. However, emergence of A. nigrisigna does not decrease in the Confuser V treated vegetable fields. As one of the reasons for this phenomenon, migration of mated females into the Confuser V treated area were considered. Thus, we studied the flight ability of female A. nigrisigna by using computer-interfaced actograph and flight mill devices. Flight measurements for mated and unmated individuals 4- to 6-d-old were recorded for 24 h. The results of the actograph assay revealed that mated females moved more actively than unmated females, possibly because of their oviposition behavior. Both the flight duration and flight range, which were measured by the flight mill device, decreased continuously with age and did not show a significant difference between mated and unmated females through the ages from 4 to 6 d. This result indicates that mating status did not directly affect the flight duration or range. From our experiments, it was suggested that females maintain physical energy after mating at the same level as before mating and then mated females locomote more actively around the host plants for oviposition. These speculations are discussed in relation to the control of A. nigrisigna by mating disruption.

In Córdoba province, central Argentina, there is an area of introduced pine trees, in which an invading Cerambycid, Arhopalus rusticus (L.), was detected in this region for the first time in 2006. The species has since expanded its range until it now occupies the whole area. Arhopalus rusticus is a common species in pine forests of the northern hemisphere. In this paper, we analyze how sex and mating status affects flight performance and the potential distribution of this species. The study was performed with individuals collected from introduced pine forests in the center-west of Córdoba Province (Argentina). The dispersal capability of A. rusticus was determined by measuring flight speed and distance traveled by recently emerged mated and unmated A. rusticus in flight mills. Data of preflight body weight, postflight body weight, body length, and elytron size were obtained from the individuals that were flown in the flight mill. We found that females had a greater body length, weighed more, had longer elytra, and were stronger flyers than males. We also found that mated individuals flew faster and longer distances than unmated individuals, and consumed a smaller fraction of their body weight. A positive ratio was observed between elytra size and flight speed. A map of males' and females' dispersal distances was produced for the study region, using the adjusted dispersal distance distribution of males and females. The flight performance showed that, as females disperse after copulation, they increase the chances of establishing the species in unoccupied areas.En la provincia de Córdoba, Argentina, hay una importante área de pinos implantados. En esta región durante el año 2006 se detectó por primera vez a Arhopalus rusticus (L.), un Cerambycidae invasor. A. rusticus es una especie común en los bosques de pino del hemisferio norte. En este trabajo analizamos de qué manera el sexo y el estado de apareamiento afectan el desempeño de vuelo y la distribución potencial de esta especie. Utilizamos individuos recolectados de los bosques de pino implantados en la región centro oeste de la provincia de Córdoba (Argentina). La capacidad de dispersión de Arhopalus rusticus se determinó haciendo volar individuos recién emergidos en un molino de vuelo. Se registró el peso previo y posterior al vuelo, el largo del cuerpo y el tamaño del élitro. Las hembras fueron mejores voladoras, más largas, más pesadas, con élitros más largos que los machos. Observamos diferencias entre el potencial de dispersión dependiendo del estado de apareamiento de los individuos. Los individuos apareados volaron más rápido y mayores distancias que los individuos no apareados y consumieron una menor fracción de su peso corporal. Se observó una relación positiva entre el tamaño del élitro y la velocidad de vuelo. Se generó un mapa de las distancias de dispersión potencial de los machos y de las hembras para la región de estudio utilizando las distribuciones de las distancias obtenidas del molino de vuelo. La dispersión post copulación incrementa las chances de que la especie se establezca en zonas no ocupadas.

The Asian Long-horned Beetle (ALB) is a highly polyphagous species invasive in North America and Europe. This species has been reported to have low dispersing potential, but long- distance dispersal could occasionally happen. We conducted a preliminary study on laboratory- reared adults from invasive populations to measure the flying po- tential of beetles using computer- linked flight mills. Under standardized conditions, ALB was capable of flying over longer distances than previously described. The high- est distance recorded over an adult lifespan outreached 14 km. Flight mill method is therefore useful to estimate the maximum physiological flight abilities of the species that should be taken into account to improve management of invasive populations.

The walnut twig beetle, Pityophthorus juglandis Blackman, and associated fungus Geosmithia morbida Kolařik, Freeland, Utley, & Tisserat constitute the insect-fungal complex that causes thousand cankers disease in walnut, Juglans spp., and wingnut, Pterocarya spp. Thousand cankers disease is responsible for the decline of Juglans species throughout the western United States and more recently, the eastern United States and northern Italy. We examined the flight capacity of P. juglandis over 24-h trials on a flight mill in the laboratory. The maximum total flight distance observed was ∼3.6 km in 24 h; however, the mean and median distances flown by beetles that initiated flight were ∼372 m and ∼158 m, respectively. Beetles flew for 34 min on average within a 24-h flight trial. Male and female flight capacities were similar, even though males were larger than females (0.64 vs. 0.57 mm pronotal width). Age postemergence had no effect on flight distance, flight time, or mean flight velocity. The propensity to fly, however, decreased with age. We integrated results of flight distance with propensity to fly as beetles aged in a Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the maximum dispersal capacity over 5 d, assuming no mortality. Only 1% of the insects would be expected to fly >2 km, whereas one-third of the insects were estimated to fly

Computer-monitored flight mills were used to record the flight performance of the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire. Flight performance of fed and unfed, and mated and unmated beetles of both sexes were recorded and compared. Mated females flew further per day and longer than unmated females or males. Mated females that were allowed to feed between flight periods flew an average of 1.3 km/day for four days; 10% flew more than 7 km/day. Measurements of free-flight speed using a mirror and a high-speed camera were used to calibrate the flight mill results, permitting absolute estimates of flight performance to be made. Free-flight speeds were approximately three times the speeds recorded by the flight mills. The median corrected distance flown by mated females was >3 km with 20% flying >10 km and 1% flying >20 km. The flight performance of mated females suggests a considerable capacity for range expansion by this invasive species. The implications for quarantine and control are discussed.

The exotic beetle Ophraella communa LeSage (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was first found in 1996 in Japan and has rapidly expanded its distribution. This study investigated variation in flight activity and its genetic basis in this beetle by measuring its flight time on a flight mill system. The O. communa population exhibited substantial variation in flight activity among individuals. More than 30% of the beetles did not fly at all during a 23-h experimental period, whereas 20–26% of the beetles flew for over 60 min. Bidirectional artificial selection based on total flight time (0 or >60 min) significantly shifted the distributions of flight time and percentage of beetles flying after several generations. Repeatability of the following five flight components was analyzed: the total flight time, longest duration of single flight, mean duration of single flights, number of single flights, and a fly-or-not criterion (flying at least once [1] or nothing at all [0]) because it defines a theoretical upp...

The efficacy of using natural enemies to control pests under field conditions largely depends on their mobility and, more specifically, on their capacity to quickly locate pest infestation. For many natural enemies, for example parasitoids, mobility is directly related to flight aptitude, which is determined by the capacity and inclination of a species to engage in flight. In this study, we determined the various factors that affected flight performance of Microplitis mediator (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), using a computer-monitored flight mill. No differences were found in flight performance (i.e., flight distance, duration, speed) between both sexes of M. mediator, and flight capacity increased up to an age of 5–7 days followed by a gradual decline afterwards. For one-day-old female parasitoids, mean (±SE) flight distance and duration were 6.23 ± 0.88 km and 85.15 ± 14.44 min, respectively, with a maximum flight distance of 18.0 km. For male parasitoids, mean flight distance and duration were 5.27 ± 0.51 km and 85.74 ± 7.63 min, respectively. Mating status did not affect flight performance of males, while flight distance of four-day-old ovipositing M. mediator females was much lower than that of un-mated females of the same age. Un-mated adults flew most actively at 22–24°C and inclination to fly gradually declined with decreasing temperature. Temperatures above 26°C considerably reduced flight activity of M. mediator. Wasps engaged in normal flight under a broad range of relative humidity (RH) conditions, with an optimum RH range identified as 75–90%. Our research shows that M. mediator is a highly active parasitoid, because both sexes show great inclination to fly under a range of environmental conditions and flight capacity at different ages. Our results can help explain parasitoid performance in the field and provide baseline information to help guide augmentative releases.

We investigated the flight speed and flight duration of Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Heteroptera: Alydidae) and Leptocorisa chinensis Dallas (Heteroptera: Alydidae) to estimate their flight distance by measuring the speed of stinkbugs flying towards a window in a room with a speed sensor. R. pedestris flew faster than L. chinensis although there was no difference in speed between sexes. R. pedestris flew fastest at 29℃ and slowest at 19℃; however, the flight speed of L. chinensis was not significantly different among 29, 25, and 19℃. Flight duration was measured using a flight mill for 22 hours under L13: D11 at 25℃. The results showed that L. chinensis flew significantly longer than R. pedestris, and there was no difference between the sexes. From the product of flight speed and flight duration, the estimated R. pedestris flight distance was 3.1-4.6km day^, and L. chinensis was 24.2-29.4km. Flight distances calculated using only the flight mill were shorter than with a speed sensor., Applied entomology and zoology, 43(3), pp.451-456; 2008

The palm weevil, Rhynchophorus vulneratus, is native to Southeast Asia and was recovered from an infested Canary Islands date palm in Laguna Beach, California, USA, in 2010. The detection of this potentially destructive palm pest initiated a detection, containment, and eradication program that was reliant, in part, on the deployment of bucket traps loaded with aggregation pheromone and baited with fermenting fruit. A key question that pertained to the deployment of traps was “how far can R. vulneratus fly?” This question could not be answered and in response to this knowledge deficit, computerized flight mill studies were conducted with field-captured R. vulneratus in an outdoor screen house in Sumatra, Indonesia. Of the 63 weevils tethered to flight mills, ∼27% failed to fly >1 km in 24 h and were excluded from analyses. In total, 46 weevils (35 females and 11 males) flew >1 km on flight mills and of these adults, the average total distance flown in 24 h was significantly greater for females (∼32 km) when compared with males (∼15 km). A small proportion of females (∼16%) flew 50-80 km, and one female flew 100.1 km in 24 h. Flying weevils exhibited an average weight loss of ∼13–17% and non-flying control weevils (n=27) lost 10–13% body weight in 24 h. The distribution of flight distances for female and male weevils combined was leptokurtic, which suggests that faster than expected spread by R. vulneratus may be possible in invaded areas.

We compared the flight behavior of Lygus hesperus Knight and Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) relative to age, sex, and time of day by using tethered (flight mills) and untethered flight (vertical flight chamber) assays. Both species and sexes initiated flights throughout the day, and flight mill assays recorded flights throughout the night. For both species and flight systems, most flights were 5 min) that were of longer cumulative duration compared with L. hesperus. The longest flights were obtained with flight mills and were 17–18 times longer than the longest flight (22 min) in the flight chamber. Determination of flight periodicity, throughout the day and night, was onl...

Energy allocation strategies have been widely documented in insects and were formalized in the context of the reproduction process by the terms ‘capital breeder’ and ‘income breeder’. We propose here the extension of this framework to dispersal ability, with the concepts of ‘capital disperser’ and ‘income disperser’, and explore the trade-off in resource allocation between dispersal and reproduction. We hypothesized that flight capacity was sex-dependent, due to a trade-off in energy allocation between dispersal and egg production in females. We usedMonochamus galloprovincialisas model organism, a long-lived beetle which is the European vector of the pine wood nematode. We estimated the flight capacity with a flight mill and used the number of mature eggs as a proxy for the investment in reproduction. We used the ratio between dry weights of the thorax and the abdomen to investigate the trade-off. The probability of flying increased with the adult weight at emergence, but was not dependent on insect age or sex. Flight distance increased with age in individuals but did not differ between sexes. It was also positively associated with energy allocation to thorax reserves, which increased with age. In females, the abdomen weight and the number of eggs also increase with age with no negative effect on flight capacity, indicating a lack of trade-off. This long-lived beetle has a complex strategy of energy allocation, being a ‘capital disperser’ in terms of flight ability, an ‘income disperser’ in terms of flight performance and an ‘income breeder’ in terms of egg production.

Adults of full-sib Colorado potato beetle families were separated into 3 groups fed on different diets: transgenic potato foliage, potato foliage treated with a foliar formulation of B. thuringiensis endotoxin (12.37 μg of Cry3A δ-endotoxin per 1 μl of mixture), and untreated potato foliage. After feeding for 3 h, all the beetles were placed on a computer-linked flight mill system. The number of beetles that flew, duration of each flight, and the number of flights for each beetle were recorded. Feeding on transgenic foliage had a strong negative effect on the proportion of beetles that flew, as well as the average number of flights per flying beetle. Mean flight duration was not influenced by the beetle diet, but interaction between family and diet was highly significant, with pronounced family effects observed for the beetles fed on standard and treated foliage. Beetles from families that performed the longest flights when fed on untreated foliage performed the shortest flights when fed on transgenic foliage. Suppression of beetle flight as a result of endotoxin ingestion could keep beetles within transgenic fields, thus increasing selection pressure toward development of physiological resistance. One possible way to reduce this pressure is to provide refugia for susceptible beetles in close association with fields planted to transgenic potato.

The red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae), native to tropical Asian regions, has become a serious threat to palm trees all over the world. Knowledge of its flight potential is vital to improving the preventive and curative measures currently used to manage this pest. As R. ferrugineus is a quarantine pest, it is difficult to study its flight potential in the field. A computer-monitored flight mill was adapted to analyse the flying ability of R. ferrugineus through the study of different flight parameters (number of flights, total distance flown, longest single flight, flight duration, and average and maximum speed) and the influence of the weevil s sex, age, and body size on these flight parameters. Despite significant differences in the adult body size (body weight and length) of males and females, the sex of R. ferrugineus adults did not have an influence on their flight potential. Neither adult body size nor age was found to affect the weevil s flying abilities, although there was a significantly higher percentage of individuals flying that were 8 23 days old than 1 7 days old. Compared to the longest single flight, 54% of the insects were classified as short-distance flyers (covering 5000m), respectively. The results are compared with similar studies on different insect species under laboratory and field conditions., The authors wish to thank researcher Daniel Sauvard (INRA - Unite de Zoologie Forestiere - Orleans) for helping in the knowledge of the flight mill technique. For the help in the design and construction of the flight mill device, we thank Anna Comes and Inaki Moratal. For the reviews on the previous versions of this manuscript, we thank Ferran Garcia-Mari (Universitat Politecnica de Valencia - Instituto Agroforestal del Mediterraneo) and Apostolos Pekas (Biobest Belgium N. V.). This research was partially funded by the Foundation of the Comunidad Valencia for the Agroalimentary Research, Agroalimed, within the project named: Study of the flight behaviour and chromatic attraction in Rhynchophorus ferrugineus adults (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

Flight mills are commonly used to assess the relative flight performance of migratory insects, but uncertainties about the rate of energy expenditure on the mill mean that absolute estimates of flight endurance are not usually attempted. In this paper we describe how we measured the power delivered to a lightweight flight mill by tethered Cicadulina storeyi China leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), and compared this to estimates of the power they use to maintain free flight. Our results showed that the leafhoppers were generating more than 0.90 μW of mechanical power when on the mill, and that they probably have 3-4 μW available for free flight. We conclude that whilst flying on the mill, the insects were generating at least 20-30% of the mechanical power needed for free flight, and that this percentage may have been significantly higher.

The flight capacity of Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) was measured in the laboratory by using computer-linked flight mills. Codling moths showed a large variation in flight capacity between individuals. We defined arbitrarily a longest single flight (LSF) of more than 5 km as an index for long-flyers. About 16.7% of virgin and 10.0% of mated males and 20.0% of virgin and 7.4% of mated females undertook such flights. Based on the LSF and the total distance flown (TDF^we concluded that males and females have little or no difference in flight capacity and that both the within-and between-habitat flights are similar in number and magnitude for both sexes. In the field, females are therefore potentially able to undertake flights of up to 11 km, as reported for males by other authors. This ability was highest at ages of 2–7 days after emergence, i.e. the first third of their lifetime, for virgin and mated male moths and for virgin female moths. Mated females showed peak flight capacity between 1 and 3 days after eclosion, which corresponded with the major egg-laying period. Few long flights were undertaken before oviposition. These findings do not agree with the oogenesis flight syndrome described by other authors, and this theory is believed not to apply to C.pomonella. Our laboratory results are discussed in relation to field experiments in general and hypotheses are developed about the significance of long-flyers for this species.

Single-night flight performances of 256 fetal corn earworm males, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), were measured with a 32-channel, computer-monitored flight-mill system to evaluate their potential and propensity for engaging in long-distance, migratory-type flight. Test moths were males of mixed age that were selected randomly from daily catches in pheromone-baited traps located adjacent to fields of silking corn, Zea mays (L.), in Burleson County near College Station, TX, during the period of 16 and 30 June 1992. Flight was observed in 96% (n = 256) of the moths tested ; however, because of mortality and other factors, only 52% (134) remained capable of flight throughout the 9.75-h simulated scotophase period. The 134 moths averaged flying a total distance of 32.53 km in 17 separate flights during 5.61 h of total flight time which included an average maximum-duration sustained single flight of 18.8 km of 2.98 h duration. Thus, the fetal H. zea males demonstrated a high potential for long-distance flight. Other observed characteristics of moth behavior and flight performance are discussed, and the flight-mill system is described.

A microcomputer-based flight mill system for Colorado potato beetles, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), is described. The system provides detailed information on flight duration, speed, and frequency of individual flights, according to user-alterable specifications. In an experiment using summer-generation female beetles, flight parameters were similar among beetles fed on potato or Solatium dulcamara , whereas starved beetles virtually did not fly. Speeds for beetles on the flight mill are significantly slower than those observed in the field.

International audience; The dispersal capacity of rare and endangered insect species has rarely been estimated even though it is essential for their management. For these species, laboratory based experiments are considered more appropriate for determining dispersal capacity as well as the factors influencing it. We aimed to characterize dispersal capacity of the endangered saproxylic beetle Osmoderma eremita (Scopoli, 1763) (Coleoptera: Cetoniidae). We studied the influence of sex and body condition on several parameters of dispersal (seven parameters of flight capacity measured in laboratory and pre-flight behaviour observed in the wild). Tethered flight experiments, conducted on 30 individuals collected in several regions of France, revealed: (1) maximal single flight distance of 1,454 m and maximal total flight distance of 2,361 m; (2) higher flight capacity in females than males; (3) flight speed and take-off completion decreasing with increasing body condition only for females. Additionally, 32 individuals displaying pre-flight behaviour in the wild showed similar interacting influences of sex and body condition: females initiating pre-flight behaviour had lower body condition than males. Thus, males and females have different dispersal strategies. We propose that body condition influences on dispersal capacity should be considered for species conservation by, for instance, managing adult food resources at the landscape scale and need to be taken into account in introduction programmes.

A multichannel, computer-monitored flight mill suitable for studying flight performance of small, weakly flying insects such as leafhoppers was developed. The flight mill uses a magnetic bearing and light-weight arm to minimize friction and drag. Sixteen mills can be monitored simultaneously by a PC. The construction of the mills and monitor, and data from a small number of test experiments, are presented. The problems associated with interpreting flight mill data are also considered.

Overwintered Colorado potato beetles, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), collected from the soil at South Deerfield, Mass., in the spring of 1989 were brought to the laboratory and individually fed potato foliage or left unfed. Beetles were tethered to a flight mill for 1h daily to measure the number of flights, their distances, and time per flight when on the mill. Unfed beetles flew more often, for longer periods, and for greater distances (on average, a total of 4,879 m for unfed females compared with 1,346 m for fed females). Many (17 of 27) fed beetles flew for short distances (>5 m) before initiating oviposition; a smaller number (6 of 22) flew >200 m during any flight bout before laying their first eggs. Unfed female beetles laid virtually no eggs, whereas fed females laid an average of 22 eggs/d. Overwintered females that were unmated in the spring did not differ in egg production from spring-mated females, but egg viability was significantly higher. Results show that a single overwintered female constitutes a mobile and fecund founder of populations. The complex life history of the Colorado potato beetle uses migration and diapause to distribute offspring over space and time, thus minimizing reproductive risk.

An apparatus was developed to measure the flight potential of Ips sexdentatus Boern, in the laboratory. It consists of a flight mill whose revolutions are detected by a photocell. This detector is connected, by way of a signal converter, to a micro-computer which records the duration, the distance and the speed of flight. Within a sample of 38 beetles, 98 % can fly more than 5 km, 50 % more than 20 km and 10% more than 45 km. The speed of flight is constant and equals to 1.3 m/s. The complete flight of the bark beetle is the sum of approximately 50 intermediate flights. A significant correlation between the total duration of the complete flight and the sum of the duration of the three or five first intermediate flights has been found. Zusammenfassung Untersuchungen zum Dispersionsflugpotential bei Ips sexdentatus (Boern) (Col., Scolytidae) mittels einer elektronisch aufzeichnenden Flugmuhle Es wurde ein Gerat entwickelt, um im Labor das Flugpotential von Ips sexdentatus zu bestimmen. Dieses Gerat besteht aus einer Flugmuhle, deren Umdrehungen mittels Photozellen registriert werden. Das Empfangsgerat ist uber einen Konverter mit einem Mikrocomputer verbunden, der die Dauer, die Entfernung und die Geschwindigkeit des Fluges aufzeichnet. Von 38 getesteten Kafern flogen 98 % mehr als 5 km, 50 % mehr als 20 km und 10 % mehr als 45 km. Die Fluggeschwindigkeit war konstant und betrug ca. 1,3 m/sec. Der Gesamtflug der Borkenkafer setzt sich aus ca. 50 Einzelflugen zusammen. Es konnte eine signifikante Korrelation zwischen der Dauer der Gesamtflugzeit und der Summe der Dauer der ersten drei bis funf Fluge gefunden werden.

Cydia pomonella L. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is considered to be rather sedentary, but some individuals undertake flights of several kilometres in the field. This paper investigates the genetic influence on this variability. The flight capacity was measured in the laboratory by a flight mill and its heritability was estimated for two different strains. The laboratory strain was kept for more than 45 generations and the field strain from Embrach (northern Switzerland) was recently collected in the field. The multiple-trait-restricted-maximum-likelihood method was used for the estimation of genetic variances and covariances. A mixed full-sib/half-sib design was applied for the field strain and a full-sib design for the laboratory strain. The heritability of total distance was 0.57 for the field strain and 0.37 for the laboratory strain (both sexes). In addition, a heritability of 0.38 for total distance was estimated by parent-offspring regression for the laboratory strain. All three values were significantly different from zero (P

Flight capabilities and survival of Lambornella clarki Corliss & Coats-infected, control, blood-fed, and gravid Aedes sierrensis (Ludlow) were monitored using a tethered flight mill system and by recording deaths at various times after initiation of these tests. Flight capabilities of infected and control males as measured by total number of flights, total time spent flying, total distance flown, average flight speed, and percentage time flying were similar. Flight capabilities of females with parasites, with fresh blood meals, and with fully developed eggs did not differ significantly. Flight capabilities of 1- to 2-d-old starved infected and starved control females also did not differ significantly. Although flight capabilities did not differ significantly, infected males died earlier than control males. For females, blooded individuals lived longest, followed by controls, and then gravid and infected individuals. These results and results of glycogen analyses of mosquito thoraces indicate that the parasite primarily affected resources needed by the mosquito for survival and not those for flight.

Individual variability in the flight potential ofIps sexdentatusBoern. was investigated using flight mill experiments. Non-flyer status and flight durations were studied in relation to day of emergence, sex, pronotum width, dried body weight (after lipid ether extraction), and lipid content estimate. Lipid content estimation was determined in beetles reared on the same trees and under identical conditions as the flight test insects.The four flight-tested cohorts showed that approximately one-third were non-flyers. The distribution of individual flight durations was described by a log-normal curve. Consequently, the dispersal variability within the population could be fitted to a linear model on a log-probit scale. The concept of FD50(flight duration 50), defined as the flight duration of 50% of a sample population, was used to describe population flight potential.There was no significant correlation between the individual flight duration and the day of emergence, sex, body size or weight, or lipid content estimate. A significant positive correlation was recorded between the different classes of flyer (i.e. non-, short, long, and very long flyers) and the average lipid content estimate. It was hypothesized that (1) a minimum threshold fuel supply was necessary to initiate the dispersal flight and (2) fuel supply could result in dispersal tendencies representing a specific response to habitat constraints.