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The goal of this article is to propose a framework for understanding the nature of "how people construct problems" by interacting with situations and subsequently to offer implications for instructional design and future research. We propose that people must interactively frame the components of a situation in order to establish the meaning of a problem to solve. Although this interactive meaning-making process is critical to real-world problem solving, little research has been devoted to understanding the nature of interactive problem-framing or how to support students in framing problems effectively. Therefore, in this paper, we attempt to approach problem-framing from the perspective of cognitive theories focused on situated interactivity and propose a synthesized conceptual model based on the interaction of agents and context. We argue that solving a real-world problem involves a process of building it (the problem) by interactively shaping distributed situational resources into structures of meaning aimed towards the resolution of perceived contradictions. Using the key elements of the model, we also propose opportunities for future empirical research and possible implications for instructional design that can help facilitate the development of students' abilities to meaningfully frame problems.

Employing authentic cases experienced by practitioners in educational contexts is critical to expanding students' experience and engaging students in authentic problems to promote their real-world problem-solving skills. Although in real life, practitioners experience both success and failure and learn from both, little research has been done so far to conceptualize why and how failure should be employed in case-based learning (CBL) as a way to develop students' abilities to solve ill-structured problems. The goal of this paper is to theoretically justify the need for integrating failure cases in CBL to help students become better problem solvers. To achieve this, this paper attempted to approach failure from the perspective of human error and proposed a classification of failure based on the degree of explicitness of human error involved in problem solving. Based on discussions of potential benefits and challenges of integrating different types of failure cases in education, this paper also proposed instructional design strategies that can help facilitate better use of failure cases.

This study investigated the case-based method (CBM) instructional-design theory and its application in designing self-directed online instruction. The purpose of this study was to validate and refine the theory for a self-directed online instruction context. Guided by formative research methodology, this study first developed an online tutorial based on 13 design assumptions synthesized from the CBM literature. The researchers then formatively evaluated the online tutorial as a design instance of CBM through two iterations of design, evaluation, and revision. The major findings included: (1) perceived value of various CBM design features, (2) benefits and limitations of applying CBM in the tutorial design, and (3) validation and revision of a set of generic and context-specific CBM design assumptions. These findings extend our understanding of CBM to the context of self-directed online instruction and provide useful insights and practical guidance to inform instructional design practices.

To date, many instructional systems are designed to support learners as they progress through a problem-solving task. Often these systems are designed in accordance with instructional design models that progress the learner efficiently through the problem-solving process. However, theories from various fields have discussed failure as a strategic way to engender learning. Although researchers suggest that failure may be an element of problem-solving, no models have discussed how to employ failure strategically within instructional design. Given this gap, we first present failure-based research from various theoretical frameworks. Based on the research, we proffer failure-based principles for learning systems design. Implications and future research are also discussed.

Reflection is a critical factor in solving design problems. Using good methods to observe designers' reflection is essential to inform the design of the learning environments that support the development of design problem-solving skills. In this study, we have developed and validated a novel self-reporting questionnaire as an efficient instrument to explore reflection, called Assessing Reflective Thinking in Solving Design Problems (ARTiD). This questionnaire has been developed based on the three-dimensional model for reflective thinking: the timing, the objects and the levels of reflection. A total of 294 undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of engineering, computer science and instructional design were recruited to participate in one of four iterative, formative tests through which reliability and validity analyses were performed to revise and confirm the questionnaire. Examples of participants' reflection patterns were demonstrated to show the practical value of this questionnaire. In conclusion, the final version of ARTiD was presented as a valid instrument to explore students' reflection for research and educational practice. In addition, we found that ARTiD can be used as an effective learning tool to guide student designers' reflections toward better learning and performance.

Design tasks are omnipresent in our everyday lives. Previous research shows that reflective thinking is one of the critical factors in solving design problems. Related research has attempted to capture designers' reflective thinking process. Yet a close inspection of designers' reflective thinking taking place during their design process demands further effort. To understand designer's reflective practice and to find better ways to promote novices' reflective thinking in solving real-world design problems, a comprehensive model was developed. This model identified three dimensions to guide the understanding of designers' reflective thinking during a design process: (1) the timing of reflection, indicating the points in the process where reflective thinking occurs, (2) the objects of reflection, showing the different types of objects that designers may reflect upon, and (3) the levels of reflection, referring to the different levels of designers' reflection. This model provides for meaningful aspects of reflective thinking to be situated in a design process, which can guide educators and instructional designers in developing appropriate learning environments for facilitating novice and practicing designers' reflective thinking. Moreover, the model can serve as a stepping stone for further research.

This design-based research study is aimed at two goals: (1) developing a feasible case-based instructional model that could enhance college students' ill-structured problem solving abilities, while (2) implementing the model to improve teacher education students' real-world problem solving abilities to deal with dilemmas faced by practicing teachers in elementary classrooms. To achieve these goals, an online case-based learning environment for classroom management problem solving (CBL-CMPS) was developed based on Jonassen's (in: Reigeluth (ed.) "Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, 1999") constructivist learning environment model and the general process of ill-structured problem solving (1997). Two successive studies, in which the effectiveness of the CBL-CMPS was tested while the CBL-CMPS was revised, showed that the individual components of the CBL-CMPS promoted ill-structured problem solving abilities respectively, and that the CBL-CMPS as a whole learning environment was effective to a degree for the transfer of learning in ill-structured problem solving. The potential, challenge, and implications of the CBL-CMPS are discussed.

No one would disagree that one of the major goals of higher education is to help college students develop as professionals who are able to deal with real-world problems in complex and dynamic situations, and who can make reasoned and reflective decisions with ethical and moral responsibility. In spite of the importance of promoting students' ill-defined, real-world problem-solving abilities in higher education, the reality is that college instructors are challenged by the difficulty of creating such a learning environment in their classrooms. Among many reasons, the authors consider a primary one to be the lack of research-based, feasible learning methods, resources, and tools that can be easily adapted by overloaded college instructors. In this paper, the authors introduce the Case-Based Learning for Classroom Management Problem Solving (CBL-CMPS) project, which was funded by The Center for Learning and Teaching at the University of Georgia. This project aimed at two interrelated goals. First, they wanted to develop a "feasible" case-based learning environment model that can enhance college students' ill-defined, real-world problem solving in general. Second, they wanted to improve teacher-education students' ill-defined problem-solving abilities, particularly in classroom management issues, by developing and implementing a theory-driven, case-based learning environment. The process of their ongoing design and implementation of this instructional intervention is iterative. In this paper, the authors present some snapshots of their experience with analysis, design, and implementation. (Contains 5 figures.)

Examines the role of goals in the learning process and reviews another theoretical perspective, experienced cognition as additional justification for the constructivist revolution affecting the field of instructional design. Addresses the implications of experienced cognition for dealing with learning goals and learning environments. (Contains 32 references.) (AEF)