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Chronic consumption of alcohol by humans has been shown to lead to impairment of executive and cognitive functions. Here we have studied the changes that take place in the dorsal striatum in post-mortem brains of alcoholics and normal controls. The results show a significant change in the expression of both the excitatory ionotropic glutamate receptor and the inhibitory GABA-A receptor subunit genes in the caudate but not the putamen of the striatum. The mRNA levels in the caudate encoding the glutamate receptor subunit GluN2A and the GABA-A receptor subunits δ, ε and ρ2 were significantly decreased whereas the GluD1, GluD2 and the GABA-A γ1 mRNA levels were significantly increased in the alcoholics as compared to controls. Interestingly in controls, 11 glutamate and 5 GABA-A receptor genes were more prominently (fold-increase varied from 1.24 to 2.91) expressed in the caudate than the putamen. We have previously shown in post-mortem samples from alcoholics that the expression level of glutamate and GABA-A receptor genes in the dorsal-lateral prefrontal cortex is similar to that of normal controls (Jin et al., 2011a;Jin et al., 2014b). This is in contrast to the present study. As the caudate is vital for automatic thinking, the results indicate that the balance between voluntary and automatic control of behaviours is altered in alcoholics. Our results suggest that there may be diminished executive control on goal-directed alcohol-seeking behaviour and, rather, a shift to greater striatal control over behaviours that may be critical in the progress of becoming an alcoholic.

Many congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are associated with mutations in the genes encoding the acetylcholine receptor (AChR), an oligomeric protein with the structure alpha(2)betadelta epsilon. AChR deficiency is frequently due to homozygous or heteroallelic mutations in the AChR epsilon subunit, most of which cause truncation of the polypeptide chain and loss of surface expression of AChR. Here we identified mutations epsilon 1369delG and epsilon Y458X, located in the 18 amino acid epsilon subunit C-terminus that lies extracellular to the M4 transmembrane domain. We then incorporated green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the intracellular loop between M3 and M4 of mutant or wild-type epsilon subunits and expressed the AChRs in RD or HEK 293 cells. AChR containing wild-type GFP-tagged epsilon subunits were incorporated into the surface membrane, whereas the GFP-tagged AChR mutant epsilon subunits co-localized with an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) marker and were not expressed on the cell surface. In addition, mutant AChRs did not reach the cell surface, as measured by labelling of intact cells with (125)I-alpha-bungarotoxin and precipitation with an epsilon-subunit-specific antiserum. Mutagenesis studies showed that cysteine 470, located four amino acids from the C-terminus, is essential for alpha/epsilon assembly and surface expression of adult AChR. Replacement of cysteine 470 by serine does not restore alpha/epsilon assembly or surface expression. Our results provide the first use of GFP-tagged AChR as a tool for investigation of CMS and demonstrate a previously undetermined role for a disulphide-bonded cystine in the epsilon subunit C-terminus, which plays a crucial role in expression of the adult AChR.

Background Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) is an unresolved clinical issue. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are known therapeutic targets for various proliferative lung diseases. Lung PDE6 expression and function has received little or no attention. The present study aimed to characterize (i) PDE6 subunits expression in human lung, (ii) PDE6 subunits expression and alteration in IPF and (iii) functionality of the specific PDE6D subunit in alveolar epithelial cells (AECs). Methodology/Principal Findings PDE6 subunits expression in transplant donor (n = 6) and IPF (n = 6) lungs was demonstrated by real-time quantitative (q)RT-PCR and immunoblotting analysis. PDE6D mRNA and protein levels and PDE6G/H protein levels were significantly down-regulated in the IPF lungs. Immunohistochemical analysis showed alveolar epithelial localization of the PDE6 subunits. This was confirmed by qRT-PCR from human primary alveolar type (AT)II cells, demonstrating the down-regulation pattern of PDE6D in IPF-derived ATII cells. In vitro, PDE6D protein depletion was provoked by transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 in A549 AECs. PDE6D siRNA-mediated knockdown and an ectopic expression of PDE6D modified the proliferation rate of A549 AECs. These effects were mediated by increased intracellular cGMP levels and decreased ERK phosphorylation. Conclusions/Significance Collectively, we report previously unrecognized PDE6 expression in human lungs, significant alterations of the PDE6D and PDE6G/H subunits in IPF lungs and characterize the functional role of PDE6D in AEC proliferation.