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Aim: The measurement or, respectively, the correction of the tibial slope is an important subject in the field of knee arthroplasty and in the procedure of cruciate ligament reconstruction. However, a valid value of the tibial slope cannot be obtained from the conventional plain X-rays in a reproducible way. The aim of this study was to evaluate the proximal tibial slope with a new CT measurement system and to compare the values with the X-ray method., Method: Using 6 cadaver tibiae, the antero-posterior slope of the proximal tibia was measured at 0 degrees, 2.5 degrees, 5 degrees, 10 degrees, 15 degrees, 20 degrees, 30 degrees internal rotation using the plain X-ray and spiral CT (3D-MPR reconstruction). Both methods were compared., Results: The variation of the measurement of the tibial slope with the X-ray method was > 5 degrees even if the optimal 0 degrees rotation in the lateral view was applied. Moreover, the measurement error increased to 14 degrees while increasing the rotation of the tibia. Using the new CT system, the error was less than 3 degrees in all measurements., Conclusion: The measurement of the tibial slope in the conventional X-ray technique showed a high variation of the values depending on the rotation of the tibia in the lateral view. In contrast, the measurements with the new CT system represented a precise method with a small variation of the tibial slope values. For this reason detailed questions regarding the precise anatomy of the proximal tibia cannot be answered precisely with plain X-rays.

Failures of ACL reconstruction still occur despite improved arthroscopic methods and new technical instruments. The reasons for failures, which are mostly related to technical surgical errors, must be recognized, analyzed, and considered for the planning and execution of revision ACL surgery. This review article describes the reasons for failed ACL reconstructions, indications, preoperative evaluation, planning, and performance of the operative procedure as well as the issue of rehabilitation. The strategies are evaluated for graft selection, staging of the revision, and the steps of the operative procedure including hardware removal, tunnel placement, graft fixation, or additional operations. Special attention is given to the dilemma of arthrofibrosis and its management in ACL revision cases. Since the results are worse after revision than following primary ACL surgery, the operative procedure has to be tailored to the needs of the patient, planned carefully, and performed by an experienced knee surgeon.

Articular cartilage injuries are commonly encountered problems in sports medicine and orthopaedics. The treatment of chondral and osteochondral lesions, which possess only a very limited potential for healing, still represents a great challenge to clinicians and to scientists. Experimental investigations reported over the last 20 years have shown that a variety of methods, including implantation of periosteum, perichondrium, artificial matrices, growth factors, and transplanted cells, can stimulate formation of new cartilage. Genetic engineering--a combination of gene transfer techniques and tissue engineering--will facilitate new approaches to the treatment of articular cartilage injuries.

A retrospective study was performed focusing on operative treatment after combined anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)/posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injuries. The operative treatment included the preservation of one or both cruciate ligaments. Twenty-eight patients, average age 30 years (range: 12-55 years), were evaluated 5.4 years (range: 1-14 years) postoperatively. Twenty-two operations were performed in patients with acute injuries (<30 days after trauma) and 6 operations in patients with chronic instabilities (>30 days after trauma). Both cruciate ligaments were preserved by suture or refixation in 16 patients. Suture of one and reconstruction of the other cruciate ligament with autologous tendon graft was performed in 12 cases. In addition, 61 procedures (meniscal suture/resection, medial/lateral reconstruction, tendon suture, and open reduction and internal fixation were performed. Postoperative treatment included continuous passive motion and protected weight bearing. Eleven (27% acute, 83% chronic) patients required revision (ACL/PCL reconstruction, osteotomy, and meniscal repair). At follow-up, 43% of the patients were very satisfied and 46% were satisfied. Seventy-one percent (89% preinjury) of the patients were able to maintain intensive and moderate International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) activity levels. The IKDC evaluation of the patients (acute %/chronic cases %) was graded for symptoms: A 39% (45/17), B 35% (27/67), C 15% (18/0), and D 11% (9/17); for range of motion: A 42% (36/67), B 42% (50/17), C 16% (14/17), and D 0%; and for ligaments: A 21% (18/17), B 33% (45/0), C 42% (32/83), and D 4% (5/0). Radiographic findings were A 18%, B 41%, and C 41%. Primary repair of acute injuries was superior to the delayed repair of chronic instabilities. Preservation of cruciate ligaments in acute combined ACL/PCL tears results in a satisfying knee function despite distinct residual ligament instability. Although suture of the cruciate ligaments in open technique is a therapeutic option in acute multiligamentous knee injuries, it is not recommended for the treatment of chronic instabilities.

Since the clinical benefit of knee braces has yet to be defined, discussion about braces after reconstructive surgery of the anterior cruciate ligament remains controversial. The use of prophylactic braces in sport did not prove to be effective. In ACL insufficient knee joints, the operative treatment is preferred over the use of functional knee braces. Therefore, the postoperative rehabilitation presents the main application of braces. Modern operative techniques with an initial strong fixation of the ACL graft make a functional postoperative treatment without external fixation possible. In the presented meta-analysis of the literature about knee braces, results from clinical and experimental studies are compared. No published clinical data have shown that braces have any effect on postoperative outcome after ACL-reconstruction. Also, no evidence of a significant bracing effect could be demonstrated in the experimental in vivo or in vitro studies, except a limited stabilizing function for lower shear stress below the physiological loads. Consequently, the systematic use of braces in the rehabilitation after ACL reconstruction cannot be recommended.

Besides patients having an acute rupture of the ACL with a clear therapeutical strategy there are increasingly young patients with chronical anterior instability and degenerative arthritis of the medial compartment and varus malalignment. This constellation is taxing severely the operative procedure considering that there is not only the instability which has to be treated but that also an improvement of the arthritis symptomatology has to be achieved. In this paper we present a therapeutical concept of high tibial osteotomy combined with an arthroscopic assisted reconstruction of the ACL which is performed as a single procedure since the early 80-ies. The goal is to remove two severe arthrogenic factors correcting the instability and the pathological anatomical axis, to reduce the medial knee pain and to improve the use of the knee in life activities.

Simultaneous ACL and PCL ruptures are rare but serious injuries resulting in distinct instability of the knee joint followed by an early degenerative arthritis. This combined trauma, which is often accompanied by additional ligament lesions, originates from a knee dislocation. While the conservative treatment of this complex instability is abandoned, the operative procedures are not yet standardised. The timing of the cruciate ligament reconstruction depends on the additional injuries, but generally the postprimary treatment is performed. Autografts and allografts, which can be also combined, are available for the reconstruction of the cruciate ligaments. The arthroscopic assisted operation starts with the drilling of all tibial and femoral tunnels using standard ACL and PCL arthroscopic instruments. The PCL is positioned after the graft has been transported into the joint through an anterolateral port, the ACL graft is positioned through the tibial drill hole and both are anchored first on the femoral and then on the tibial site i.e. with interference screws. In the postoperative rehabilitation neither immobilisation nor brace are used and progressive range of motion is allowed. The arthroscopic assisted reconstructions of the ACL and increasingly of the PCL are becoming standard procedures, but the technically difficult combined ACL/PCL reconstruction is restricted to a small number of arthroscopists. The first clinical results demonstrate, that the arthroscopic operation is comparable to the open reconstruction.