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The kynurenine pathway (KP) of tryptophan degradation contains three neuroactive metabolites: the neuroinhibitory agent kynurenic acid (KYNA) and, in a competing branch, the free radical generator 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) and the excitotoxin quinolinic acid (QUIN). These three "kynurenines" derive from a common precursor, L-kynurenine, and are recognized for their role in brain physiology and pathophysiology. Inhibition of kynurenine 3-hydroxylase, the enzyme responsible for 3-HK formation, shifts KP metabolism in the mature brain toward enhanced KYNA formation. We now tested the cerebral effects of kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibition in immature rodents. Rat pups treated with the kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibitor UPF 648 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) 10 min after birth showed substantial increases in cerebral and liver kynurenine and KYNA levels up to 24 hr later, whereas 3-HK and QUIN levels were simultaneously decreased. Administered to pregnant rats or mice on the last day of gestation, UPF 648 (50 mg/kg, i.p.) produced qualitatively similar changes (i.e., large increases in kynurenine and KYNA and reductions in 3-HK and QUIN) in the brain and liver of the offspring. Rat pups delivered by UPF 648-treated mothers and immediately exposed to neonatal asphyxia showed further enhanced brain KYNA levels. These studies demonstrate that acute kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibition effectively shifts cerebral KP metabolism in neonatal rodents toward increased KYNA formation. Selective inhibitors of this enzyme may therefore provide neuroprotection in newborns and will also be useful for the experimental evaluation of the long-term effects of perinatal KP impairment.

In the rodent brain, astrocytes are known to be the primary source of kynurenate (KYNA), an endogenous antagonist of both the glycine(B) and the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. In the present study, primary human astrocytes were used to examine the characteristics and regulation of de novo KYNA synthesis in vitro. To this end, cells were exposed to KYNA's bioprecursor L-kynurenine, and newly formed KYNA was recovered from the extracellular milieu. The production of KYNA was stereospecific and rose with increasing L-kynurenine concentrations, reaching a plateau in the high microM range. In an analogous experiment, astrocytes also readily produced and liberated the potent, specific glycine(B) receptor antagonist 7-chlorokynurenate from L-4-chlorokynurenine. KYNA synthesis was dose-dependently reduced by L-leucine or L-phenylalanine, two amino acids that compete with L-kynurenine for cellular uptake, and by aminooxyacetate, a non-specific aminotransferase inhibitor. In contrast, KYNA formation was stimulated by 5 mM pyruvate or oxaloacetate, which act as co-substrates of the transamination reaction. Aglycemic or depolarizing (50 mM KCl or 100 microM veratridine) conditions had no effect on KYNA synthesis. Subsequent studies using tissue homogenate showed that both known cerebral kynurenine aminotransferases (KAT I and KAT II) are present in astrocytes, but that KAT II appears to be singularly responsible for KYNA formation under physiological conditions. Taken together with previous results, these data suggest that very similar mechanisms control KYNA synthesis in the rodent and in the human brain. These regulatory events are likely to influence the neuromodulatory effects of astrocyte-derived KYNA in the normal and diseased human brain.

The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation contains several metabolites which may influence brain physiology and pathophysiology. The brain content of one of these compounds, kynurenic acid (KYNA), decreases precipitously around the time of birth, possibly to avoid deleterious N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor blockade during the perinatal period. The present study was designed to determine the levels of KYNA, the free radical generator 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), and their common precursor L-kynurenine (L-KYN) between gestational day 16 and adulthood in rat brain and liver. The cerebral activities of the biosynthetic enzymes of KYNA and 3-HK, kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs) I and II and kynurenine 3-hydroxylase, respectively, were measured at the same ages. Additional studies were performed to assess whether and to what extent kynurenines in the immature brain derive from the mother, and to examine the short-term effects of birth asphyxia on brain KYNA and 3-HK levels. The results revealed that 1) the brain and liver content of L-KYN, KYNA and 3-HK is far higher pre-term than postnatally; 2) KAT I and kynurenine 3-hydroxylase activities are quite uniform between E-16 and adulthood, whereas KAT II activity rises sharply after postnatal day 14; 3) during the perinatal period, KYNA, but not L-KYN, may originate in part from the maternal circulation; and 4) oxygen deprivation at birth affects the brain content of both KYNA and 3-HK 1 h but not 24h later.

Intrastriatal injection of the endogenous excitotoxin quinolinate in experimental animals causes a lesion which duplicates many features of Huntington's disease (HD). This lesion can be prevented by a related metabolite, kynurenate. Since kynurenate levels are reduced in the HD neostriatum, a deficiency in brain kynurenate may be the cause of neuron loss in HD. In order to investigate the relationship between excitotoxic neurodegeneration and kynurenate formation, effects of a unilateral quinolinate injection on several measures of kynurenate metabolism were studied in the rat striatum and substantia nigra. Within 2 hours, quinolinate caused an approximately 100% increase in striatal kynurenate levels in the absence of changes in its bioprecursor L-kynurenine or its biosynthetic enzymes kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs) I and II. This increase was more dramatic after 2 days (+735%) and was accompanied by an increase in L-kynurenine (+182%). No change or a slight decrease in enzyme activities were detected at this time-point. More chronic excitotoxic lesions produced a substantial increase in kynurenate levels (by approximately 2-, 4- and 4-fold, respectively, after 7 days, 1 and 5 months). Lesion-induced changes in KAT II activity essentially paralleled those seen with kynurenate, whereas KAT I remained slightly decreased at all timepoints. Nigral KAT II activity was increased ipsilaterally 2 days, 1 and 5 months after the striatal quinolinate injection. Kinetic analyses, performed in the striatum 5 months after the quinolinate injection, showed an almost 3-fold decrease in Km values for KAT II in the absence of v(max) changes. These findings indicate that 1) different mechanisms regulate kynurenate production at different stages after an intrastriatal quinolinate injection; 2) an increased substrate affinity to KAT II is responsible for the elevation of kynurenate in the chronically lesioned rat striatum; and 3) qualitative differences in kynurenate metabolism exist between the HD neostriatum and the excitotoxin-lesioned rat striatum, supporting the idea that (a decrease in) kynurenate tone may play a primary role in the pathophysiology of HD.

Several brain-specific mechanisms control the formation of the endogenous excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist kynurenic acid (KYNA) in the adult rat brain. Two of these, dopaminergic neurotransmission and cellular energy metabolism, were examined in the brain of immature (postnatal day 7) rats. The results indicate that during the early postnatal period cerebral KYNA synthesis is exceptionally amenable to modulation by dopaminergic mechanisms but rather insensitive to fluctuations in cellular energy status. These findings may be of relevance for the role of KYNA in the function and dysfunction of the developing brain.

The brain and cerebrospinal fluid levels of kynurenic acid (KYNA), a metabolite of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation and antagonist of the glycine(B) receptor and the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, are elevated in persons with schizophrenia. To evaluate whether this increase is related to antipsychotic medication, we examined the effects of haloperidol (HAL), clozapine (CLOZ) or raclopride (RAC) on brain KYNA levels in rats. Animals received either acute drug injections or ingested the drugs chronically with the drinking water. Acute application or one-week drug exposure had no effect on brain KYNA levels. After one month, HAL, CLOZ and RAC all caused significant reductions in KYNA levels in striatum, hippocampus and frontal cortex. Quantitatively similar reductions in the brain tissue content of KYNA were observed after one year of HAL administration. All these effects were accompanied by equivalent decreases in the extracellular concentration of KYNA, measured by striatal microdialysis. Separate animals received an intrastriatal infusion of (3)H-kynurenine to probe the entire kynurenine pathway acutely in rats treated with HAL for one year. These animals showed reduced (3)H-KYNA production, but no changes in the formation of other kynurenine pathway metabolites. By enhancing glutamatergic and cholinergic neurotransmission, reduced brain KYNA levels may play a role in the clinical effects of prolonged antipsychotic medication.

Competing enzymatic mechanisms degrade the tryptophan metabolite l -kynurenine to kynurenate, an inhibitory and neuroprotective compound, and to the neurotoxins 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinate. Kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibitors such as PNU 156561 shift metabolism towards enhanced kynurenate production, and this effect may underlie the recently discovered anticonvulsant and neuroprotective efficacy of these drugs. Using electrophysiological and neurotoxicological endpoints, we now used PNU 156561 as a tool to examine the functional interplay of kynurenate, 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinate in the rat hippocampus in vivo. First, population spike amplitude in area CA1 and the extent of quinolinate-induced excitotoxic neurodegeneration were studied in animals receiving acute or prolonged intravenous infusions of l -kynurenine, PNU 156561, ( l -kynurenine+PNU 156561) or kynurenate. Only the latter two treatments, but not l -kynurenine or PNU 156561 alone, caused substantial inhibition of evoked responses in area CA1, and only prolonged (3 h) infusion of ( l -kynurenine+PNU 156561) or kynurenate was neuroprotective. Biochemical analyses in separate animals revealed that the levels of kynurenate attained in both blood and brain (hippocampus) were essentially identical in rats receiving extended infusions of l -kynurenine alone or ( l -kynurenine+PNU 156561) (4 and 7 μM, respectively, after an infusion of 90 or 180 min). However, addition of the kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibitor resulted in a significant decrement in the formation of 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinate in both blood and brain. These data suggest that the ratio between kynurenate and 3-hydroxykynurenine and/or quinolinate in the brain is a critical determinant of neuronal excitability and viability. The anticonvulsant and neuroprotective potency of kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibitors may therefore be due to the drugs' dual action on both branches of the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation.

Using in vivo and in vitro paradigms, the regulation and function of the brain metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA) was examined in rats on postnatal days (PND) 7 and 14. As shown previously in adult rats, glucose removal and d-amphetamine (d-Amph) administration caused decreases in KYNA formation, while exposure to pyruvate up-regulated KYNA synthesis. The effect of glucose deprivation was substantially blunted in immature animals. In PND 14 rats, d-Amph pre-treatment exacerbated the excitotoxic effects of an intrastriatal N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) injection. This potentiation was prevented by m-nitrobenzoylalanine, a kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibitor that also antagonized the KYNA reduction caused by d-Amph. These and additional experiments with the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist CGP 40116 indicate the existence of a functionally significant, novel high-affinity receptor for KYNA in the brain.

Using in vivo and in vitro paradigms, the regulation and function of the brain metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA) was examined in rats on postnatal days (PND) 7 and 14. As shown previously in adult rats, glucose removal and d-amphetamine (d-Amph) administration caused decreases in KYNA formation, while exposure to pyruvate up-regulated KYNA synthesis. The effect of glucose deprivation was substantially blunted in immature animals. In PND 14 rats, d-Amph pre-treatment exacerbated the excitotoxic effects of an intrastriatal N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) injection. This potentiation was prevented by m-nitrobenzoylalanine, a kynurenine 3-hydroxylase inhibitor that also antagonized the KYNA reduction caused by d-Amph. These and additional experiments with the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist CGP 40116 indicate the existence of a functionally significant, novel high-affinity receptor for KYNA in the brain.