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In this study, we examined the evolutionary outcome of and interplay between historic isolation and current selection pressures on traits more or less closely connected to fitness in the Pearly Heath butterfly (Coenonympha arcania) across its range in Europe. We hypothesized that a trait mean is more related to historic events if it has low connection to fitness, while a trait more closely connected with fitness is expected to have a mean that relates more to current selection pressures. In order to test this, we collected 322 butterflies from across the species range in Europe and measured five wing traits relating to size and color patterns. To infer a phylogeographic history for each individual, we sequenced a 594 bp fragment of the COI gene. The morphological data were then analyzed in relation to selected climatic variables and the history of individuals to disentangle which factors best correlated with morphological variation. The results supported our hypothesis in that wing sizes correlated with summer precipitation but not with its inferred location during the last glaciation. Eyespot position, on the other hand, correlated with the history of individuals but not with the analyzed climatic indicators. The sizes of the black spot and the white band, two traits that were expected to have intermediate selection pressure, were associated with both history and current conditions. Thus, this study illustrates the fascinating interplay between events and processes that lead to a specific evolutionary outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite high representation of steppe elements in Northern Palaearctic temperate biota, the Pleistocene history of such species is still insufficiently understood. The steppe specialist butterfly Proterebia afra (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) inhabits both the continental Palaearctic steppe biome and southern mountain steppes; it occurs as a relic on the Balkan Peninsula. Based on mitochondrial (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I), nuclear (arginine kinase) and genome-wide (amplified fragment length polymorphism) molecular markers and species distribution modelling (MaxEnt), we analysed its historical biogeography. In the assumed ancestral range (northern Iran and southern Caucasus), the populations form distinct units, which probably differentiated during downhill–uphill shifts during the Pleistocene glacial cycles. Populations north and east of the Caucasus Mountains form a single lineage, separated from the southern populations for the entire Plio-Pleistocene. According to species distribution modelling, this lineage retained a contiguous distribution during glacial maxima, documenting that this steppe species inhabited vast areas during glacial times. The Balkan populations are distinct, revealing in situ survival within glacial cycles, but were repeatedly connected to the rest of the range in the past. The connection between the south-eastern Balkans and the Black Sea surroundings could had been lost in relatively recent times, owing to human-induced changes in land use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual dimorphism is a widespread phenomenon in Lepidoptera. It is reflected in differences in life history, behavior and morphology. Analyses of differences in behavior are mostly difficult and time‐consuming, especially in high mountain ecosystems. To enhance our knowledge on sexual dimorphisms of alpine butterflies, we performed a mark–release–recapture study on 2 species common in the Alps: Boloria pales and Boloria napaea. We analysed movement and foraging behavior to investigate differences between sexes. Both sexes were mostly sedentary and the movement distances of males and females similar. However, obvious differences in dispersal behavior between the sexes were found in the movement patterns. Three different patterns were distinguished. Most males showed intensive flight activity, but mostly flew only in a limited part of the entire habitat (i.e., their individual home range) searching for females, whereas females were less flight active and flew only to find places for oviposition or feeding. The third pattern, where individuals flew larger distances, was only observed in a small number of males, which always returned to their home range. Nearly all feeding was observed on Asteraceae. However, males preferred the genera Leontodon and Crepis, while females preferred Leontodon and Carduus. Apart from this sexual difference in foraging, individuals of both sexes were found to be more or less specialised on nectar sources. Flight activity was generally greater in males than females. Therefore, we think that sex‐specific requirements in nectar ingredients exist, that is, sugar for the intensive flight activity of males and amino acids for egg production of females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The level of genetic diversity found for species is strongly influenced by properties of the species' ecology, abundance and behaviour (as dispersal). To address this coherence, we selected twenty-two grassland butterfly and burnet moth species, which were previously analysed by allozyme electrophoresis (using 15-25 loci per species) over a study area in western Germany with adjoining areas of Luxembourg and north-eastern France. For this study area, we calculated the species' specific climatic niche breadths and derived various ecological parameters from literature and own field observations. The obtained parameters of genetic diversity (heterozygosity, number of alleles and percentage of polymorphic loci), genetic differentiation ( D as well as F and F values as proxis for genetic differentiation among populations and inbreeding within populations), as well as ecological and climatic niche dimensions did not show significant differences among the different Lepidoptera families; therefore taxonomic assignment apparently has a negligible influence on the genetic structure of taxa. Genetic diversity and differentiation showed a significant correlation with the ecological and climatic niche-breadth of species in many cases: generalistic species with rather unspecific ecological characteristics and climatic niche had higher genetic diversities and tend to have lower differentiation and inbreeding, whereas specialist taxa (i.e. with narrow ecological and climatic niches) have lower genetic diversities and higher differentiation and inbreeding. The results might reflect contrasting population structures of specialist species with lower abundances compared with the more common generalists. The more restricted and isolated occurrence of specialists might consequence a reduction in genetic diversity and an increase in genetic differentiation among local populations. In contrast, generalists with unspecific habitat requirements occur in higher abundances and in consequence show a more homogenous genetic structure with higher diversities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

. 1. While the biogeographical structuring of Europe as a whole is already relatively well understood, patterns at the more regional scale are still poorly explored. Especially the influence of differing ecological demands among species groups on regional distribution patterns is mostly unresolved. Therefore, we compare the distributions of strictly terrestrial butterflies with those of semi-aquatic dragonflies. 2. We analysed a regionalised distribution of the 196 butterfly and 68 dragonfly taxa of Romania with cluster analyses and principal component analyses, and worked out the different faunal regions and faunal elements for this country. 3. We obtained a clear regional structuring for the butterflies (e.g. Transylvanian Basin, Carpathians, SE Romania, W/SW Romania), but only a vertical structuring in the dragonflies from the Danube lowlands to the elevations of the Carpathians. 4. This structure implies a recent distribution trigger based on ecological and climatic constraints in dragonflies with water and energy availability being of high importance. 5. The more ancient biogeographical pattern in butterflies reflects the different biogeographical elements of Europe and the connections of the Carpathian regions to the Balkan Peninsula and the Eastern European steppes, with energy being of considerably higher importance for butterfly occurrences than water availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a consequence of postglacial range expansion, hybrid zones evolved where different genetic lineages met. In this study, we analysed the Chalk-hill Blue Polyommatus coridon all along the contact zone of two expansive lineages. This zone stretches from the sandy areas of north-eastern Germany, along the mountain ranges of the German-Czech border and throughout the eastern Alps. We studied allozymes (19 loci) of 38 populations (1542 individuals) and compared these data sets against 15 populations of the western and 15 populations of the eastern lineages and found different degrees of hybridization. Thus, the calcareous regions of Thuringia and Sachsen-Anhalt were mostly colonized by the western lineage. The middle mountain ranges between Bavaria and Bohemia represented a strong barrier blocking further expansion and thus completely impeding hybridization in this region. More intense hybridization was detected in the populations of the eastern Alps, especially in the north-eastern part, where the Danube most probably acted as an expansion corridor for both lineages followed by intensive hybridization. In the south-eastern Alps, hybrid populations were mostly detected in the easternmost parts and along the larger river valley of Drava and Mur; pure western populations dominated in the other areas of this region. These results show that the degree of hybridization along a contact zone is correlated with the ecological demands of a species and the regional physical geographic circumstances. This finding was proved for the Chalk-hill Blue in our study but is also the most likely scenario in most animal and plant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climatic changes can cause severe range shifts of biota over time. During climatically challenging periods, many organisms often persist in suitable refugia. One rather important refuge area of thermophilic species of the Palaearctic region includes the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb region, known as the 'Atlanto-Mediterranean' refuge. In order to study this postulated refugium, we computed species distribution models to reconstruct the past potential distribution of Melanargia ines (Hoffmannsegg, 1804) during the last glacial maximum. We also sampled individuals from populations of this butterfly species at its distribution margins (Iberia, and western and eastern Maghreb), and performed allozyme electrophoresis to assess the biogeographical patterns. The projected continuity of a conductive climate from Iberia to the eastern Maghreb, and the lack of genetic differentiation across the entire distribution range of M. ines, is in favour of the existence of one Atlanto-Mediterranean refugium for this species. A relatively constant climate over the Atlas Mountains over long periods of time, as predicted by species distribution models and observed genetic diversity patterns displaying an accumulation of intraspecific variability in this area, supports the idea of an important stronghold of M. ines in this mountain range, as has already been shown for several other species. The lower genetic diversity of the Iberian and Tunisian population might be the result of a rapid range expansion originating from the Atlas region or the survival of smaller relict populations in the eastern Maghreb (which is underpinned by geographically restricted climatically suitable retreats in this area, computed using species distribution models). In general, these findings highlight the importance of the Atlas massif as a refugium for thermophilic species on the Palaearctic scale. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 104, 828-837. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The selection of suitable ecological indicator groups is of great importance for environmental assessments. To test and compare two such groups, we performed transect walks of butterflies and light traps of moths at eight sample localities in the Carinthian Alps. All of them were conducted with identical methods in the years 2002 and 2004 allowing the evaluation of the response on the conservation measures performed on five of the eight sites in late 2002. We recorded a total of 2346 butterflies (including Zygaenidae and Sesiidae) representing 83 species and 7025 moths of 534 species. 150 of these species were listed in the Red Data Book of Carinthia. In general, butterflies increased from 2002 to 2004 while moths declined. The highest increase rates of butterflies were obtained for the numbers of individuals of calcareous grassland specialists at the conservation sites, while their numbers were unchanged at the control sites. Similar trend differences between conservation and control sites were obtained for the Red Data Book butterfly species. On the contrary, the development of moth individuals was more positive at the control than the conservation sites for calcareous grassland specialists (only macro-moths) and species of the Red Data Book. However, change rates of species numbers were positively correlated between butterflies and moths. Principal Component Analysis revealed strong differences between the different sites, but mostly consistent results for butterflies and moths; however, stronger differences between years were only detected for some of the conservation sites for the butterfly communities. Our results show that butterflies as well as moths are suitable ecological indicator groups, but they do not yield identical results. Thus, butterflies are more suitable for the analysis of open habitats, whereas moths are suitable for open and forested habitats as well. Furthermore, butterflies might be a more sensitive indicator group than moths for the short-term detection of conservation measures, especially for the restoration of open habitat types. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Copyright of Journal of Zoological Systematics & Evolutionary Research is the property of Hindawi Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Zoological Systematics & Evolutionary Research is the property of Hindawi Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Sibling species groups are suitable models for the understanding of inter- and intraspecific processes in taxonomy and biogeography. We analysed 262 individuals from the Alps of the Coenonympha arcania/gardetta species complex by allozyme electrophoresis. These taxa showed high variance amongst populations ( FST: 0.391) and strong intertaxon genetic differentiation ( FCT: 0.376). Although morphologically similar, Coenonympha gardetta and Coenonympha arcania clearly differ in their genetic characteristics; the morphologically intermediate taxa Coenonympha darwiniana darwiniana and Coenonympha darwiniana macromma are genetically well distinguished from each other and the two other taxa. Coenonympha arcania and C. d. macromma most probably share a common ancestor and evolved by cladogenesis, whereas the taxonomic situation of C. d. darwiniana is still unresolved: This taxon might be the result of hybridization between C. arcania and C. gardetta or it might have a common ancestor together with C. gardetta. We suggest species rank for all four taxa. The distribution of genetic diversity of these populations and the differentiation amongst populations suggest rather different biogeographical scenarios: C. arcania most probably is of Mediterranean origin with postglacial range expansion northwards; C. gardetta survived the last ice age in peripheral refugia of the Alps and has spread all over this high mountain system in the postglacial; C. darwiniana and C. macromma survived the Würm in geographic proximity to their actual distribution areas and only have performed moderate uphill translocations during postglacial warming. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 159, 890–904. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean countries like Portugal and Spain, so far characterised by extensive traditional land use over major parts of their territories, have been less affected by species losses. However, they are facing severe changes. As a model organism we chose the butterfly Euphydryas aurinia, highly threatened in Central Europe but still common at the Iberian Peninsula, for a mark-release-recapture survey in the western Algarve. We examined key factors for stabile metapopulation systems to assess the ability of long-term survival in the increasingly fragmented landscapes of the Iberian Peninsula. The density of the examined population was high (ca. 2,200 individuals/ha). However, the MRR-based proportion of individuals moving longer distance classes showed a better fit to the negative exponential function than to the inverse power function implying restricted dispersal behaviour. The orientation pattern of short distance movements (<10 m) proved to be independent from habitat structures. In contrast, longer movements (>10 m) were strongly orientated along the main habitat axes revealing the importance of internal habitat structures for the orientation of dispersing individuals. Based on these data, we discuss the severe consequences for the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula in an increasingly fragmented and monotonous landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We aim to infer a combined scenario for the evolution of the Woodland Ringlet, Erebia medusa, in Central Europe based on analyses of part of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxydase subunit I (COI) and a published allozyme data set. We sequenced 529 bp of COI for 158 butterflies from 32 populations from almost the entire western distribution range of the species. We applied population genetic [spatial analysis of molecular variance (samova)] and phylogeographical analyses as well as coalescence simulation to test if the published allozyme scenario supports or contradicts the observed haplotype distribution. We recorded 16 haplotypes of which four represent a total of 82%.samova grouped the 32 populations into four geographically coherent groups: (1) western Central Europe, (2) Central Europe, (3) eastern Central Europe and (iv) western Pannonia. Mismatch distribution analyses and haplotype networks are in coincidence with constant population growth and reveal a relatively shallow phylogeographical structure. We evaluated the level of discordance between population histories and gene trees using Slatkins s and the deep coalescence statistics based on our mtDNA data. These estimators decline the previously published allozyme scenario of survival in different extra-Mediterranean refugia in Europe with an onset of differentiation at the beginning of the last ice age some 70 000 years ago. However, it supports a refined scenario if we assume an onset of vicariance driven differentiation in these refugia after the end of the middle Würm interstadials some 30 000 years ago. Therefore, the general evolutionary history of this species in Europe apparently is very recent. Most probably, areas adjoining the high mountain regions as Alps and northern Carpathians were of great importance for the late Würm glacial survival of species like Erebia medusa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the ecological process of population differentiation and identifying the molecular changes that contribute to adaptation is a central aspect of evolutionary biology. In this study we analyzed the geographic variation in allozyme allele frequencies (based on 15 enzyme systems representing 18 loci) across 18 populations of the butterfly Lycaena tityrus from different altitudes. Population genetic analyses showed that within population genetic diversity (e.g. mean number of alleles per loci: 1.8; expected heterozygosity: 12%) was within the typical value range for the Lepidoptera. The populations of L. tityrus investigated showed a remarkable genetic differentiation (FST: 0.065), being clearly divided into an alpine (high-altitude) and a non-alpine (low-altitude) cluster. This differentiation was almost entirely caused by variation at a single enzyme locus, PGI. Although the involvement of historical events cannot be ruled out, several lines of evidence suggest that the specific pattern of allozyme (and in this case particularly PGI) variation found is caused by thermal selection. For example, genetic variation was highly locus-specific rather than relatively uniform, as should be expected for effects of natural selection. Further, the PGI 2–2 genotype dominating in alpine (in contrast to low-altitude) populations is known to exhibit increased cold stress resistance and relatively long development times typical of alpine populations. Thus, PGI (or possibly a closely linked gene) is an obvious target for thermal selection in L. tityrus. This study exemplifies how allozyme analyses can be used to detect candidate loci likely to be under selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution of the mountain coniferous forest biome in Europe throughout time is not sufficiently understood. One character species of this habitat type is the large ringlet, Erebia euryale well reflecting the extension of this biome today, and the genetic differentiation of this species among and within mountain systems may unravel the late Pleistocene history of this habitat type. We therefore analysed the allozyme pattern of 381 E. euryale individuals from 11 populations in four different European mountain systems (Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Rila). All loci analysed were polymorphic. The mean FST over all samples was high (20%). Furthermore, the mean genetic distance among samples was quite high (0.049). We found four different groups well supported by cluster analyses, bootstraps and hierarchical variance analyses: Pyrenees, western Alps, eastern Alps and southeastern Europe (Carpathians and Rila). The genetic diversity of the populations was highest in the southeastern European group and stepwise decreased westwards. Interestingly, the populations from Bulgaria and Romania were almost identical; therefore, we assume that they were not separated by the Danube Valley, at least during the last ice age. On the contrary, the differentiation among the three western Alps populations was considerable. For all these reasons, we assume that (i) the most important refugial area for the coniferous mountain forest biome in Europe has been located in southeastern Europe including at least parts of the Carpathians and the Bulgarian mountains; (ii) important refugial areas for this biome existed at the southeastern edge of the Alps; (iii) fragments of this habitat types survived along the southwestern Alps, but in a more scattered distribution; and (iv) relatively small relicts have persisted somewhere at the foothills of the Pyrenees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viticulture is one of the most intensively managed agricultural ecosystems in Europe. Therefore, the conservation problems of vineyards and the ecological benefits of increasing the amount of fallow land are addressed using butterflies as a model group. We established 43 transects, each 100 m long, in a vineyard region in the vicinity of Trier (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany) and recorded the butterflies observed along these transects on 20 occasions from late May to early August 2003. Transects crossed vineyards, fallow land and transitional areas of land. 4041 individuals of 34 species showed the typical pattern of relative abundance with few common and many relatively rare species. Fallow land had more individuals and species and a higher Shannon species diversity index than vineyards. Community evenness and average butterfly dispersal ability were highest in the vineyards. Principal Factor Analyses and UPGMA cluster analysis distinguished between fallow land and vineyards. The difference between early meadow and late forest fallow land areas was not strong, but the former tended to have a higher diversity than the latter. Vineyards thus might act as a sink for butterflies. Therefore, a clear separation between vineyards and fallow land is best for nature conservation. As young fallow land tends to have a higher diversity than older fallow land in this study, it is likely that the conservation value of vineyards for butterflies could be increased by active management of fallow land areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cyclic changes of the Pleistocene between cold and warm periods resulted in antagonistic responses within two different groups of organisms: one expanding during the warm periods and retracting during the cold phases and another with opposed responses. The latter group is composed of so-called arctic and alpine species. These species have recently become the focus of phylogeographical research. However, we still lack a comprehensive characterization of the different types of alpine and arctic-alpine disjunctions in the western Palearctic. Such an overview might facilitate the selection of different model species to test the different patterns of disjunctions for congruences revealing their past distribution. Therefore, we list all alpine and arctic-alpine disjunction types of the western Palearctic using butterflies and moths as a model group. We distinguish between (1) endemics of the Alps (α) with strongly restricted and (β) with broader distributions; (2) alpine disjunct species (α) with perialpine disjunctions and (β) with a wide western Palearctic distribution; (3) oro-Mediterranean species; and (4) arctic-alpine disjunct species. These types of distributions and further subtypes are exemplified using chorological data of butterfly and moth species. In this context, we discuss the intraspecific differentiation and the differentiation among sibling-species within and among disjunct parts of the distribution area. We also formulate hypotheses of the distribution patterns during the last ice age which might best explain the actual patterns. Finally, we suggest some case studies of genetic analyses to test the above mentioned hypotheses. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 93, 415–430. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Maculinea alcon, a myrmecophilic, stenotopic lycaenid butterfly is restricted to wet heathlands, bogs, and nutrient-poor hay meadows. Due to intensification of agriculture and decrease of extensively grazed meadows, many suitable habitats have disappeared and the remaining ones are highly fragmented and deteriorated. 2. Historical distribution data and a comparison with the present occupation of patches show the decline of this critically endangered butterfly in north-west Germany. Most of the populations in north-west Germany are small and often geographically isolated. 3. In summer 2002, two-thirds of 77 investigated potential patches were unoccupied as a result of unsuitable habitat structure and habitat fragmentation. 4. Several habitat parameters were highly significantly correlated with the presence of M. alcon, in particular the distribution pattern of the host plant Gentiana pneumonanthe. Furthermore, butterflies were absent from many patches with an incidence probability below 50% with respect to patch size and isolation. 5. In the nature reserve Lüneburger Heide, part of the study area, M. alcon populations have been observed since 1995. Typical turnover of local populations could be detected during these years. Extinctions and re-colonisations have stabilised the presence of this species in a metapopulation in this nature reserve. 6. These data show the importance of different factors on different spatial levels influencing the presence of this endangered butterfly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of cyclic climate fluctuations and their impact on high-altitude species is still insufficiently understood. We therefore analysed in this study the genetic structure of cold-adapted animals and their coherence with geographical distributions throughout the Late Quaternary. We analysed 588 individuals from 23 populations of the alpine-endemic lesser mountain ringlet, Erebia melampus, by allozyme electrophoresis to detect its intraspecific differentiation. As an outgroup, we added one population of Erebia sudetica inalpina from Grindelwald (Swiss Alps). Seventeen of 18 loci were polymorphic. The mean F ST over all samples was 37%. We detected strong differentiation into three lineages with the genetic distances between the two E. melampus groups being larger than between each of the two E. melampus groups and E. sudetica. The mean genetic distance among these three groups was 0.17. These results give evidence for the existence of a species complex within the E. melampus/sudetica group and indicate a discontinuous distribution within this group during at least the last ice age. One of them, E. sudetica inalpina, is found in the northern Alps and most probably had its Würm glacial refugium north of the glaciated Alps. The western E. melampus group might have had a refugium at the southwestern Alps margin, the eastern group in the lower altitudes of the southeastern and/or eastern Alps. In the latter, a further subdivision within this relict area is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phylogeographical studies are available for a considerable number of European species, but few analyses exist for temperate species with very large and fairly continuous populations that are also absent from Northern Europe. Therefore, we studied the butterfly Maniola jurtina as a model for this group. The species has two major genetic lineages (mean genetic distance between lineages: 0.033; FCT: 0.052), most probably evolving in glacial differentiation centres in the western and eastern Mediterranean. The onset of this differentiation might have been the beginning of the last glacial stage maximum some 40 kyr bp. A hybrid zone between these two lineages exists in western Central Europe. No genetic substructures have been found within the two lineages ( FSC: 0.017) and average genetic distances are very small. Therefore, it is highly probable that postglacial expansion was of the phalanx type. There is, at most, very limited differentiation at regional and local scales. However, the genetic diversity within populations is high (means: A: 2.68; HE: 17.2%; P: 78%), as would be predicted for such a common species. Comparison of these results with a published allozyme analysis revealed a similar phylogeographical pattern, but lower genetic diversity in the latter. Morphological patterns of wings and genitalia show similar geographical patterns as allozyme data. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 85, 419–431. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three paradigm patterns of post-glacial dispersal are known for terrestrial species in Europe. However, the possibility of a fourth arises with the Italian and the Balkan lineages expanding to central Europe and the Iberian one being trapped by the Pyrenees. We test this hypothesis by analysing the molecular biogeography of the Marbled White butterfly. Twelve populations distributed over a major part of the European range of Melanargia galathea and M. lachesis. We studied 18 allozyme loci of 403 individuals from 12 populations. Butterflies were sampled in the field, frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored under these conditions until analysis. We used cellulose acetate plates for allozyme electrophoresis. We detected three major genetic lineages within the M. galathea/lachesis complex. The M. lachesis sample from the southern Pyrenees was strongly genetically differentiated from M. galathea ( FCT: 0.312). Melanargia galathea splits into two major genetic lineages ( FCT: 0.115), which both were found in post-glacially invaded regions. The further differentiation within these lineages was comparably low ( FSC: 0.028). The genetic diversity within populations was high compared with other butterfly species. Our findings support the existence of a fourth pattern with only the Iberian lineage not contributing considerably to the post-glacial colonization of central Europe. Preliminary studies in other butterfly species of dry grasslands support the importance of this pattern possibly representing a fourth paradigm. The high genetic diversity within populations might be one reason for the recently observed expansions at the northern distribution limits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aglaope infausta is a thermophilous Zygaenid of Atlanto-Mediterranean origin, distributed in Portugal, Spain, France and north-western Italy reaching its north-eastern distribution limit in western Germany. The local, regional and inter-regional genetic structure of this species is studied in this analysis. The allozymes of 456 individuals from 12 populations (11 from western Germany and one from southern Portugal) were studied by electrophoresis. Six of the 19 loci analysed were monomorphic. Genetic differentiation between populations was high ( FST: 0.404), while the mean genetic diversity was low ( He: 3.4%). Most (96.5%) of the genetic variance between populations was between the Portuguese and the German samples, but also the differentiation within Germany was considerable ( FSR: 0.101). In Germany, A. infausta occurs in two major regions (middle Rhine and Nahe) that are geographically separated, and 55.5% of the genetic variance was found between these two regions. The populations of both areas do not differ in their genetic diversity, but those of the middle Rhine have significantly higher genetic distances among them than the Nahe populations (0.020 and 0.015, respectively). FST was also higher in the middle Rhine region than in the Nahe region (0.089 and 0.045, respectively). Aglaope infausta shows a very low level of genetic heterogeneity for a lepidopteran species. However, this genetic poverty is not affecting the species’ viability. During the ice ages, differentiation into two genetic lineages occurred, most probably in a south-western and a south-eastern differentiation centre in Iberia. The gap in the distribution range in Germany is clearly reflected in the genetic structure. This differentiation must have developed relatively quickly because western Germany most probably was colonized during the climatic optimum 6000 years ago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pleistocene climatic oscillations strongly influenced the genetic composition of many species which are often divided into several genetic lineages. In this context, we studied the allozymes of a common and widely distributed butterfly, the common blue Polyommatus icarus, over a large part of Europe. The species had a rather high genetic diversity within populations with a strikingly high mean number of alleles per locus (2.98). In contrast, differentiation between populations was very low ( FST : 0.0187). Only a marginal trend of decline in genetic diversity from the south to the north was observed. Isolation-by-distance existed on a European scale ( r = 0.826), but not at a regional level. Regional differentiation between populations in western Germany was extremely low ( FST : 0.0041). It is probable that P. icarus was widely distributed in the Mediterranean region during the last ice age and expanded into central Europe in the postglacial period without major genetic erosion. Moderate present and past gene flow in an intact metapopulation structure may have occurred on local, regional and perhaps even continental scales. © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 80 , 529–538. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invertebrate diversity has rapidly declined throughout Europe during the last century. Various reasons for this decrease have been proposed including human induced factors like climate change. Temperature changes alter distributions and occurrences of butterflies by determining habitat conditions at different scales. We evaluated changes in the composition of butterfly communities recorded at nine areas of fallow ground in south-western Germany in 1973, 1986, 2010 and 2012 using Pollard's transect technique. To demonstrate the importance of climatic changes in affecting butterfly communities, we calculated the community temperature index (CTI) for each butterfly community in each year. Although they increased slightly, the CTI-values did not match the temperature trends recorded in the study region. However, the reduction in the standard deviations of the CTIs over time is reflected in the marked loss of cold- and warm-adapted species due to their inability to cope with temperature and land-use induced habitat changes. Results of our butterfly surveys indicate a marked decline in species richness and striking changes in the composition of the butterfly communities studied. This trend was most pronounced for habitat specialists, thus mirroring a depletion in trait diversity. Our results indicate that, in the course of large-scale anthropogenic changes, habitat degradation at smaller scales will continuously lead to the replacement of habitat specialists by ubiquitous species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Six polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated in the endangered butterfly Lycaena helle. Five of them provided interpretable results. We detected four to 34 alleles per locus in a total of 235 samples (males and females) collected from meadows in the Ardennes-Eifel (Germany, Luxemburg and Belgium) and the Westerwald (Germany). We collected one leg for DNA-extraction as a non-lethal method. The expected heterozygosities ranged from 48.6% to 83.1%, depending on the locus analysed. These markers are currently being used in our studies of the species' phylogeography over its western Palearctic distribution area and for the analysis of the conservation status of the fragmented populations in Central Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]