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Density functional theory electronic structure calculations were used to explore the mechanism for the Diels-Alder reaction between 2,5-dimethylfuran and maleic anhydride (MA). Reaction paths are reported for uncatalyzed and Lewis and Brønsted acid-catalyzed reactions in vacuum and in a broad range of solvents. The calculations show that, while the uncatalyzed Diels-Alder reaction is thermally feasible in vacuum, a Lewis acid (modeled as Na(+)) lowers the activation barrier by interacting with the dienophile (MA) and decreasing the HOMO-LUMO gap of the reactants. A Brønsted acid (modeled as a proton) can bind to a carbonyl oxygen in MA, changing the reaction mechanism from concerted to stepwise and eliminating the activation barrier. Solvation effects were studied with the SMD model. Electrostatic effects play the largest role in determining the solvation energy of the transition state, which tracks the net dipole moment at the transition state. For the uncatalyzed reaction, the dipole moment is largely determined by charge transfer between the reactants, but in the reactions with ionic catalysts, there is no simple relationship between solvation of the transition state and charge transfer between the reactants. Nonelectrostatic contributions to solvation of the reactants and transition state also make significant contributions to the activation energy.

We present electronic structure calculations on the isomerization and epimerization of xylose to xylulose and lyxose, respectively, by a zeolite Sn-BEA model at the MP2 and B3LYP theory levels. Benchmarking calculations at the CCSD(T) theory level are also presented. We show that lyxose is formed from a stable intermediate in the xylose-xylulose isomerization pathway. In agreement with experimental observations, we predict that xylulose is thermodynamically and kinetically favoured over lyxose. We find that the slowest step for both reactions involves hydrogen transfer from the C2 to the C1 carbon of the carbohydrate molecule and we characterize it using natural population analysis. We conclude that the hydrogen transfer does not take place as a hydride ion but rather as concerted neutral hydrogen-electron transfer that involves different centres for the hydrogen and electron transfer., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Production of butadiene from biomass-based tetrahydrofuran (THF) is explored as an alternative to the existing petroleum-based processes. Metal oxide catalysts have been shown to exhibit varying product selectivities when reacted with THF. Among those oxides, ZrO2 showed the highest selectivity for butadiene. In contrast, Al2O3 showed the highest selectivity for the competing retro-Prins products, C3H6 and HCHO. The reasons behind the varying selectivity across oxides are unclear. In this work, we employ periodic density functional theory and mean-field microkinetic modeling to investigate the mechanism of the reaction of THF to butadiene and retro-Prins products on t-ZrO2 (101) (dry and hydrous) and on γ-Al2O3 (110). Our simulations reproduce the experimental selectivity trends. High selectivity for butadiene is promoted by the presence of neighboring Lewis acid metal sites that facilitate E1cB hydroxyl elimination from a 3-butenoxide intermediate; on hydrous Al2O3; where such neighboring Lewis acid centers are not available, the butenoxide undergoes E2 elimination and retro-Prins products ensue. The THF ring opening is rate-determining on ZrO2, whereas the γ-proton elimination that yields the 3-butenoxide intermediate is rate controlling on hydroxylated Al2O3. We conclude that the local topology around the active site greatly influences the mechanism and selectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The zeotypic Lewis acids Sn-BEA, Zr-BEA, and Ti-BEA have recently been reported to catalyze the synthesis of p-xylene by dehydrative aromatization of the Diels-Alder product between 2,5-dimethylfuran and ethylene. Although it has been shown that these Lewis acids can catalyze the dehydration of the Diels-Alder cycloadduct, the tandem scheme precludes decoupling of the two steps needed to infer whether these same catalysts can catalyze the Diels-Alder step. We have employed electronic structure calculations and microkinetic modelling to investigate the Diels-Alder aromatization of 2,5-dimethylfuran and ethylene to p-xylene over the Lewis-acidic zeotypes Sn-, Zr-, and Ti-BEA. We show that there is only minor catalysis of the Diels-Alder reaction, solely attributable to confinement phenomena varying with the translational freedom allowed to the species inside the zeolite. Microkinetic modelling and sensitivity analysis of the computed rates show that the heterogeneous Diels-Alder pathway does not contribute to the overall rate, and that the homogeneous cycloaddition is rate-limiting at high acid site concentrations. Only the partially hydrolyzed ('open') Lewis acid sites are found to be catalytically active, with moderately Brønsted-acidic silanol groups formed, which catalyze 2,5-dimethylfuran hydrolysis. Of the Lewis acids tested in this work, Zr-BEA and Sn-BEA have similar activities, in agreement with experiment, whereas Ti-BEA is found to be inactive, suggesting that the recently reported Ti-BEA activity was likely a result of Brønsted-acidic defect sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We present a detailed mechanism for the conversion of DMF (2,5-dimethylfuran) and ethylene to p-xylene, obtained by gas-phase DFT electronic structure calculations. The conversion consists of Diels–Alder cycloaddition and subsequent dehydration of the cycloadduct, an oxa-norbornene derivative. We present the energetics of both the uncatalyzed and acid-catalyzed (Brønsted and Lewis) reactions. Even though the DMF–ethylene cycloaddition is thermally feasible, we show that Lewis acids can further lower the activation requirements by decreasing the HOMO–LUMO gap of the addends. The catalytic effect may be significant or negligible depending on whether the Diels–Alder reaction proceeds in the normal or the inverse electron-demand direction. We also show that Brønsted acids are extremely effective at catalyzing the dehydration of the oxa-norbornene derivative, which, according to our calculations, cannot proceed uncatalyzed. On the other hand, we conclude that Brønsted acids do not catalyze the cycloaddition. Although strong Lewis acids like Li+ can catalyze the dehydration, our calculations indicate that relatively elevated temperatures would be required as they are not as effective as Brønsted acids. We argue that the specific synthetic route to p-xylene is kinetically limited by the Diels–Alder reaction when Brønsted acids are used and by the dehydration when a Lewis acid is used, with the latter being slower than the former. Finally, we adduce experimental data that corroborate the theoretical predictions: we observe no activity in the absence of a catalyst and a higher turnover frequency to p-xylene in the Brønsted acidic zeolite HY than in the Lewis acidic zeolite NaY. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The acylation of methylfuran has been investigated using Brønsted and Lewis acid zeolite catalysts. The highest reaction rate for acylation on a per gram basis is found on zeolite Beta with high aluminum content (Si/Al = 23) and the highest turnover frequency on a per metal site basis is found on zeolite Beta with low aluminum content (Si/Al = 138). Among Lewis acid zeolites, [Sn]-Beta shows higher turnover frequency than [Hf]-, [Zr]- or [Ti]-Beta. Similar apparent activation energies were found for [Al]-Beta with different Si/Al ratios and a lower apparent activation energy was found for [Sn]-Beta. Electronic structure calculations reveal that on both [Al]- and [Sn]-Beta the most favorable pathway follows the classic addition-elimination aromatic electrophilic substitution mechanism. The calculations also reveal that, on both [Al]- and [Sn]-Beta, the rate of methylfuran acylation is controlled by the dissociation of the C O C linkage of the anhydride while hydrogen elimination is the rate-determining step in the acylation of furan. The latter is in complete agreement with measured primary kinetic isotope effects. One remarkable and unexpected finding from our calculations is that the most favorable catalytic pathway in [Sn]-Beta involves Brønsted acid catalysis by the silanol group of the hydrolyzed “open” site and not Lewis acid catalysis by the Sn metal center. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tin-containing zeolite Beta (Sn-Beta) has been investigated as a catalyst for isomerizing aldohexoses into ketohexoses through a Lewis acid mediated hydride shift. Recent studies on the reactivities of Lewis base-doped and alkali-exchanged Sn-Beta samples have conclusively demonstrated that the “open” tin site performs the glucose isomerization reaction. With Lewis base doped Sn-Beta, glucose conversion is almost completely eliminated and product selectivity is shifted predominantly to mannose. These data suggest that glucose reactions may occur through pathways that do not involve the “open” site in Sn-Beta; albeit at significantly lower rates. To examine this possibility, reactions of glucose catalyzed by a homogeneous model of Sn-Beta that does not contain “open” sites, methyl-ligated tin silsesquioxane 1a , is experimentally and theoretically examined. 1a is an active glucose conversion catalyst selectively producing mannose, although the rates of reaction are far below those obtained from Sn-Beta. A hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanics model is constructed, and the complete catalytic cycle is computationally examined, considering ring-opening, three distinct pathways for each hydride- and carbon-shift reaction, and ring-closing. The combined experimental and computational results suggest that there could be reaction pathways that involve Si–O–Sn cleavage that give much slower reaction rates than the open tin site in Sn-Beta. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]