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The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of external attachment of radio transmitters at one of two locations on mature rat snakes (Elaphe obsolete). Transmitters were attached to mature snakes (n = 10; 136.7cm ± 6.4) on either the ventral surface (n = 5) or dorsal-lateral surface of the rib cage (n = 5), approximately 25cm cranially to the cloaca. Transmitters (18mm × 8mm × 2mm) were attached by one drop of acrylamide gel glue to the adhering side of camouflage duct tape (20cm × 30mm), a single drop of glue on the exposed side of the transmitter, and secured by wrapping the tape to the snake’s body with the transmitter in the appropriate location. A second piece of duct tape (20cm × 40mm) overlapped and secured the first piece of tape with the transmitter. Snakes were placed in a 0.1ha plastic fence enclosure, (128.5cm ± 0.5 height, and 17.1° ± 0.5 inward slope) in an unimproved pasture with numerous hides, water and food. Snakes (n = 4) shed their skin and the transmitter, within 6- 17d post-attachment (11.7d ± 2.4). Snakes (n = 4) escaping the enclosure and not located, ranged from 1- 21d post-attachment, (12.3d ± 4.7). There was no difference (p > 0.05) in functional days snakes were located by radio telemetry due to attachment site or sex. Transmitter reception distance was typically < 50m and often problematic. Results of this study suggest that the location of external attachment of transmitters had no influence on duration of effectiveness. However, shedding and limited telemetry range under these conditions should be considered to determine if the methodology is appropriate for the desired objectives.

We constructed a fence enclosure with the objective of preventing escape of rat snakes (Elaphe obsolete) as part of a repellent study. A 25cm trench was dug in a 30m × 30m square (0.1ha) in an unimproved pasture. Wood posts (8.9cm × 8.9cm × 2.0m) were secured on corners and at 15m intervals between each corner at an average height of 128.5cm ± 0.5 height with an inward slope of 17.1o ± 0.5. Steel T-posts (2.0m) were erected to a similar height and angle at 4m intervals between wood posts and fitted with plastic insulated caps. Three strands of 17-gauge wire were secured to the top, middle and 10cm above the ground of each post. Plastic sheeting (3.04m × 30.4m × 4mm) was draped over the suspended wires with the bottom 25cm secured within the trench with dirt. All overlapping seams of plastic were secured with polypropylene tape. A single strand of 17-gauge electric fence wire and a strand of electric polyfence tape were attached by duct tape to the top of the inside of the plastic fence. An additional strand of electric polyfence was attached by duct tape to the plastic 20cm above the ground. A loop of the electric polytape was also attached in each corner and connected to the wire and polytape on the top and lower strand of polytape. The electric fence strand and all polytape was energized by a solar powered charger with an output > 5000v. During two releases of 5 mature rat snakes (n = 10; 136.7cm ± 6.4), containment within the enclosure was similar (p > 0.05), and limited to 9.1h ± 1.8 and 9.4h ± 1.8 respectively. Video analysis indicated snakes were climbing the electric charged polyfence tape and escaping over the fence without evidence of receiving an electric shock. This fence design was not sufficient to maintain mature rat snakes.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of Milorganite® as a repellent for rat snakes. Milorganite® is the bio solids by-product left from the activated sludge process from the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewer District. During 3, 7-day release periods, 5-6 mature rat snakes were placed within a 0.1ha plastic fence enclosure intended to impede escape. The enclosure contained natural and artificial hides and water. Snakes were fitted with an externally attached radio transmitter with location of each snake determined 3 times per day by radio telemetry and visual confirmation. During the first 2, 7-day period, with no Milorganite® treatment, snakes were contained within the enclosure for a similar (p>0.05) duration of 9.1h±1.8 and 9.4h±1.8 respectively, before escaping. Prior to release of snakes in period 3, a total of 907.2g of Milorganite® was applied by hand in a 20cm width strip along the interior perimeter of the enclosure fence. During period 3, 6 snakes were maintained within the enclosure longer (p< 0.005) compared to periods 1 and 2, with an average containment time of 23.5h/day±0.5. Total snake-hours that animals were maintained in the enclosure was higher (p

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of Milorganite as a potential repellent to mitigate damage incurred to chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum morifolium) by free ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Milorganite, the biosolids by-product left from the activated sludge process from the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewer District, has had extensive use as an organic, slow releasing fertilizer and soil amendment in the past 80 years. Application of Milorganite as a top dressing, at three dose levels (1120 kg/ha, 2500 kg/ha, 5000 kg/ha) reduced damage (P < .05) to planted chrysanthemums by white-tailed deer over the 35 day study. While not significantly different (P > .05) compared to the lowest treatment level (1120 kg/ha), there was a trend toward a dose response effect as determined by analysis of plant area from digital photographs. Protection appeared to be directly related to the topical application of the deterrent to the plant with odor from adjacent treated and control areas within a plot having no measurable influence on reducing plant damage. Based on these results, Milorganite was determined to be effective at reducing plant damage by the browsing of free-ranging white-tailed deer.

When deer populations become locally overabundant, browsing of ornamental and agronomic plants negatively affects plant establishment, survival, and productivity. Milorganite® is a slow-release, organic fertilizer produced from human sewage. We tested Milorganite® as a deer repellent on chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemums morifolium) in an urban/suburban environment, and soybeans (Gycine max) in a rural agriculture environment. Six beds of chrysanthemums at two sites were monitored for 28 to 35 days. Treatment plants received a top dressing of 104 grams of Milorganite® (1120.9 kg/ha). Milorganite® treated plants had more (P < 0.001) terminal buds and achieved greater height (P < 0.002) compared to controls at one site, however damage observed was similar at the second site. In a second experiment, 0.2-ha plots of soybeans (Glycine max) were planted on five rural properties in northeastern Georgia and monitored for 2:30 days. Treated areas received 269 kg/ha of Milorganite®. In 4 of 5 sites, Milorganite® delayed browsing on treated plants from I week to > 5 weeks post-planting. Duration of the protection appeared to be related to the difference in deer density throughout most of the study areas. Results of this study indicate Milorganite® has potential use as a deer repellent.

We hypothesized that an exclusion fence could be devised to capitalize on traction limitations of the hooves of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Hexagonal plots (9.8 m wide) enclosed by a 2.4 m field fence with two openings (4.9 m) were established. Data were collected daily on consumption of corn provided (2.27 kg) and events recorded by infrared monitors (IR) for treatment and control sites. Five-day treatment periods consisted of test panels (4.9 m x 2.4 m) placed in plot openings at 0°, 5° and 10° slopes, and lubricant applied at the 10° slope. Deer consumed all corn provided at control sites. At the 10 ° slope, daily corn consumption decreased (1.50 kg ± 0 .26, p < .0 l ), and IR events were lower (p < .01) at treatment sites (23.6 ± 3.2) compared to controls (50.3 ± 9.6). With the addition of a lubricant, corn consumption decreased further (p < .001) to 0. 17 kg ± 0.03, and IR recorded events were lower (p < .001) at treatment sites (6.58 ± 0 .89) compared to controls (44.8 ± 3.1). Results of this study indicate that traction limitation of the hoof can be exploited.

We hypothesized that a visually solid barrier of cloth would provide an effective exclusion fence for free ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Three plots consisting of 2, 10 m x 10 m squares were established in pastures. Data were collected daily for consumption of com provided (2.27 kg) and events recorded by infrared game monitors. Following construction of the burlap fence at 1.7 m height, corn consumption decreased (0.07 ± 0.01 kg/day, P < .001). The number of Infrared monitor events recorded also decreased within the enclosures (2.13 ± 0.04 events/day, P < .001) compared to controls (46.0 ± 2.2 events/day). During the second stage of the experiment, two of the three plots were reestablished 45 days later. Fence heights began at 65 cm and were raised 15 cm each 5 days, until reaching 1.7 m. At 1.7 m, corn consumption decreased by 30% (1.56 ± 0.23 kg/day, P < .01). The number of infrared monitor-recorded events was also lower at fence heights >65 cm (P < .03). Results indicate that a visually solid barrier has potential to be an effective exclusion fence.

It was hypothesized white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) could be readily conditioned to 2 commonly used deterrents, Deer-Away® Big Game Repellent (BGR) and blood meal (BM). Plots were randomly assigned BGR, BM and control. Free-ranging deer were initially conditioned to forage for corn at each 49m 2 bare earth plots delivered at 0500 hr and 1600 hr by programmable siing-type feeders. Hoof prints were counted within a 3.7m 2 sample area of each plot to quantify activity. Following preconditioning, data were collected during 5, 5-day periods. Application of BGR and BM to their respective bare earth plots occurred during periods 2, 4 and 5. Initial exposure decreased the number of hoof-prints for BGR (P = 0.011) and BM (P = 0.033) compared to the control. Subsequent exposure to BGR during periods 4 and 5 did not differ from the control (P > 0.227). Prints counted following exposure to BM were similar to the control in period 4 (P = 0.267), but lower (P = 0.045) in period 5. Within each treatment group , prints counted were lower during period 2 compared to periods 1, 3, 4 and 5 for both BGR (P =0.001) and BM (P = 0.018). No differences (P > 0.05) were found among periods 1,3,4 and 5 within each treatment. Results support the hypothesis that white-tailed deer can readily be conditioned to these two commonly used deterrents.