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Background: Lifestyle management is essential in the secondary care of coronary heart disease (CHD) patients. Little evidence is available about gender differences in lifestyle counselling and lifestyle compliance. This study aimed to provide an overview on potential gender differences in lifestyle advice provided by a healthcare professional and patients' lifestyle compliance., Methods and Results: Analyses were based on the cross-sectional ESC EORP EUROASPIRE V survey including data on CHD patients across 27 European countries. Consecutive patients <80 years, hospitalized for a first or recurrent coronary event, were included in the study. Information on lifestyle management was collected from medical records, medical examination, and structured questionnaires during patient interviews (≥6 months to <2 years after hospitalization). Data were available for 8261 patients of whom 25.8% women. Overall, no gender differences were observed in lifestyle advice provided by a healthcare professional for smoking cessation advice, dietary advice, advice on losing weight, and physical activity advice (P > 0.05). However, a closer look at the particular actions to adopt a healthy diet revealed that women reported more frequently a reduction of their salt (68.6% vs. 73.7%; P = 0.002), fat (70.8% vs. 74.7%; P = 0.003), and calorie intake (56.8% vs. 60.5%; P = 0.004) compared to men. In contrast, women were less likely to increase their physical activity levels (55.5% vs. 48.0%; P < 0.001)., Conclusion: Despite little gender differences in lifestyle advice provided by a healthcare professional, lifestyle compliance for physical activity is worse in CHD women. Further actions are needed to increase physical activity levels in female CHD patients., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest: none declared., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. © The Author(s) 2022. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Aims: Despite the high use of cardioprotective medications, the risk factor control in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) is still inadequate. Guidelines identify healthy lifestyles as equally important in secondary prevention as pharmacotherapy. Here, we describe reasons for poor lifestyle adherence from the patient's perspective., Methods and Results: In the EUROASPIRE IV and V surveys, 16 259 CHD patients were examined and interviewed during a study visit ≥6 months after hospital discharge. Data gathering was fully standardized. The Brief Illness Perception questionnaire was completed by a subsample of 2379 patients. Half of those who were smoking prior to hospital admission, were still smoking; 37% of current smokers had not attempted to quit and 51% was not considering to do so. The prevalence of obesity was 38%. Half of obese patients tried to lose weight in the past month and 61% considered weight loss in the following month. In relation to physical activity, 40% was on target with half of patients trying to do more everyday activities. Less than half had the intention to engage in planned exercise. Only 29% of all patients was at goal for all three lifestyle factors. The number of adverse lifestyles was strongly related to the way patients perceive their illness as threatening. Lifestyle modifications were more successful in those having participated in a cardiac rehabilitation and prevention programme. Patients indicated lack of self-confidence as the main barrier to change their unhealthy behaviour., Conclusion: Modern secondary prevention programmes should target behavioural change in all patients with adverse lifestyles., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. © The Author(s) 2021. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Aims: The aim of this study was to determine whether the Joint European Societies guidelines on secondary cardiovascular prevention are followed in everyday practice., Design: A cross-sectional ESC-EORP survey (EUROASPIRE V) at 131 centres in 81 regions in 27 countries., Methods: Patients (<80 years old) with verified coronary artery events or interventions were interviewed and examined ≥6 months later., Results: A total of 8261 patients (females 26%) were interviewed. Nineteen per cent smoked and 55% of them were persistent smokers, 38% were obese (body mass index ≥30 kg/m 2 ), 59% were centrally obese (waist circumference: men ≥102 cm; women ≥88 cm) while 66% were physically active <30 min 5 times/week. Forty-two per cent had a blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg (≥140/85 if diabetic), 71% had low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ≥1.8 mmol/L (≥70 mg/dL) and 29% reported having diabetes. Cardioprotective medication was: anti-platelets 93%, beta-blockers 81%, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers 75% and statins 80%., Conclusion: A large majority of coronary patients have unhealthy lifestyles in terms of smoking, diet and sedentary behaviour, which adversely impacts major cardiovascular risk factors. A majority did not achieve their blood pressure, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and glucose targets. Cardiovascular prevention requires modern preventive cardiology programmes delivered by interdisciplinary teams of healthcare professionals addressing all aspects of lifestyle and risk factor management, in order to reduce the risk of recurrent cardiovascular events.

Objective: The aim of this study was to assess lifestyle behaviour as well as risk factor management across Belgian coronary patients who participated in the cross-sectional European Action on Secondary Prevention through Intervention to Reduce Events (EUROASPIRE) surveys., Methods: Analyses are based on a series of coronary patients by combining data from the Belgian participants in the EUROASPIRE III (328 patients; in 2006-2007) and EUROASPIRE IV (343 patients; in 2012-2013) surveys. Four hospitals located in the Ghent area participated in the surveys. Patients included in the analyses were ≥18 years old and had been hospitalised for a coronary event. Information on cardiovascular risk factors, lifestyle behaviour and medical treatment were obtained., Results: Overall, the proportion of smokers was 11% with 40% persistent smokers. Adequate physical activity levels were reported by 17%, 28% of patients were obese, 47% was central obese and known diabetes was prevalent in 21% of patients. Hypertension was observed in 46% of patients and 20% had a total cholesterol ≥5 mmol/L. About 80% had participated in a cardiac rehabilitation programme and the majority of patients were treated with blood pressure (92%) or lipid-lowering drugs (92%). Anxiety and depressive symptoms were reported by 30% and 24%, respectively. Differences between EUROASPIRE III and IV were limited., Conclusions: Compared to the overall EUROASPIRE results in Europe, Belgian CHD patients seem to do slightly better. However, tackling obesity, physical inactivity, hypertension and psychosocial distress remains an important challenge in the management of coronary patients.

Background: The EUROASPIRE (European Action on Secondary and Primary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce Events) cross-sectional surveys describe time trends in lifestyle and risk factor control among coronary patients between 1999 and 2013 in Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom as part of the EuroObservational Research Programme under the auspices of European Society of Cardiology., Objectives: This study sought to describe time trends in lifestyle, risk factor control, and the use of evidence-based medication in coronary patients across Europe., Methods: The EUROASPIRE II (1999 to 2000), III (2006 to 2007), and IV (2012 to 13) surveys were conducted in the same geographical areas and selected hospitals in each country. Consecutive patients (≤70 years) after coronary artery bypass graft, percutaneous coronary intervention, or an acute coronary syndrome identified from hospital records were interviewed and examined ≥6 months later with standardized methods., Results: Of 12,775 identified coronary patients, 8,456 (66.2%) were interviewed. Proportion of current smokers was similar across the 3 surveys. Prevalence of obesity increased by 7%. The prevalence of raised blood pressure (≥140/90 mm Hg or ≥140/80 mm Hg with diabetes) dropped by 8% from EUROASPIRE III to IV, and therapeutic control of blood pressure improved with 55% of patients below target in IV. The prevalence of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ≥2.5 mmol/l decreased by 44%. In EUROASPIRE IV, 75% were above the target low-density lipoprotein cholesterol <1.8 mmol/l. The prevalence of self-reported diabetes increased by 9%. The use of evidence-based medications increased between the EUROASPIRE II and III surveys, but did not change between the III and IV surveys., Conclusions: Lifestyle habits have deteriorated over time with increases in obesity, central obesity, and diabetes and stagnating rates of persistent smoking. Although blood pressure and lipid management improved, they are still not optimally controlled and the use of evidence-based medications appears to have stalled apart from the increased use of high-intensity statins. These results underline the importance of offering coronary patients access to modern preventive cardiology programs., (Copyright © 2016 World Heart Federation (Geneva). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background European Action on Secondary and Primary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce Events (EUROASPIRE) IV in primary care was a cross-sectional survey carried out by the European Society of Cardiology, EURObservational Research Programme in 2014-2015 in 71 centres from 14 European countries. The main objective was to determine whether the 2012 Joint European Societies' guidelines on cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention in people at high CVD risk have been followed in clinical practice. Methods Patients without a history of atherosclerotic disease started on either blood pressure and/or lipid and/or glucose-lowering treatments were identified and interviewed at least six months after the start of medication. Results Medical notes of 6700 patients were reviewed, and 4579 patients (58.7% women; mean age 58.8 (standard deviation (SD) 11.3) years) interviewed (interview rate 68.3%). Overall, 16.6% were smokers, 39.9% were overweight (body mass index (BMI)≥25 and <30 kg/m 2 ), 43.5% obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m 2 ) and 63.9% centrally obese (waist circumference of ≥88 cm for women, ≥102 cm for men). The medical risk factor control was very poor, with less than half (42.8%) of the patients on blood pressure lowering medication reaching the target of <140/90 mm Hg (<140/80 mm Hg in people with self-reported diabetes). Among treated dyslipidaemic patients only 32.7% attained the low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol target of <2.5 mmol/l. Among people treated for type 2 diabetes mellitus, 58.5% achieved the glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) target of <7.0%. Conclusion The EUROASPIRE IV survey shows that large proportions of patients at high CVD risk have unhealthy lifestyle habits and uncontrolled blood pressure, lipids and diabetes. The present data make it clear that more efforts must be taken to improve cardiovascular prevention in people at high CVD risk.

Objective: The objective of this study was to determine time trends in the implementation of European guidelines on the management of cardiovascular disease prevention in people at high cardiovascular risk., Methods: Cardiovascular disease prevention as reflected in the primary care arms of the EUROASPIRE III and IV surveys were compared in centres from Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, Romania and the United Kingdom that participated in both surveys. All patients were free of cardiovascular disease but considered at high cardiovascular disease risk since they had been started on blood pressure and/or lipid and/or glucose lowering treatments. They were interviewed and examined by means of standardized methods ≥6 months after the start of therapy., Results: EUROASPIRE III comprised 2604 and EUROASPIRE IV 3286 subjects whereof 76% and 56% were interviewed. There were no major differences between the two surveys in age, gender, centres and reasons for inclusion. The prevalence of smoking was similar between EUROASPIRE III and IV. The proportion of smokers who did not intend to quit was significantly greater in EUROASPIRE IV compared with III. The prevalence of overweight or obesity was high and identical in both surveys. No significant differences were observed in physical activity. In participants not on blood pressure lowering treatment an elevated blood pressure was observed in 47% in both EUROASPIRE III and IV. In participants not on lipid lowering drugs the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol was ≥2.5 mmol/l in 87% and 88% in EUROASPIRE III and IV respectively. In participants free from known diabetes fasting plasma glucose was ≥7 mmol/l in 12% and 18% in EUROASPIRE III and IV. In subjects with known arterial hypertension blood pressure was at or below guideline recommended targets in 28% in EUROASPIRE III and 35% in IV. In participants on lipid lowering drugs the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol was < 2.5 mmol/l in 28% and 37% in EUROASPIRE III and IV. Glycated haemoglobin was < 7.0% in participants with known diabetes in 62% and 60% in EUROASPIRE III and IV., Conclusions: The results from EUROASPIRE III and IV clearly demonstrate that the control of modifiable risk factors in people at high cardiovascular disease risk remains poor., (© The European Society of Cardiology 2016.)

Background: The purpose of this study was to ascertain way in which conventional risk factors, readiness to modify behaviour and to comply with recommended medication, and the effect of this medication were associated with education in patients with established coronary heart disease (CHD)., Methods: The EUROASPIRE IV (EUROpean Action on Secondary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce Events) study was a cross-sectional survey undertaken in 24 European countries to ascertain how recommendations on secondary CHD prevention are being followed in clinical practice. Consecutive patients, men and women ≤80 years of age who had been hospitalized for an acute coronary syndrome or revascularization procedure, were identified retrospectively. Data were collected through an interview with examinations at least six months and no later than three years after hospitalization., Results: A total of 7937 patients (1934 (24.37%) women) were evaluated. Patients with primary education were older, with a larger proportion of women. Control of risk factors, as defined by Joint European Societies 4 and 5 guidelines, was significantly better with higher education for current smoking (p = 0.001), overweight and obesity (p = 0.047 and p = 0.029, respectively), low physical activity (p < 0.001) and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (p = 0.011) in men, and for obesity (p = 0.005), high blood pressure (p < 0.005 and p < 0.001), low physical activity (p = 0.001), diabetes (p < 0.001) and low HDL-cholesterol (p = 0.023) in women. Patients with primary and secondary education were more often treated with diuretics and antidiabetic drugs. Better control of hypertension was achieved in patients with higher education., Conclusion: Particular risk communication and control are needed in secondary CHD prevention for patients with lower educational status., (© The European Society of Cardiology 2015.)

Background: Patients with coronary heart disease often suffer from an impaired health-related quality of life (HRQoL). A healthier lifestyle not only extends individuals' lengths of life but might also improve their HRQoL. The aim of this study was to explore the relation between self-reported lifestyle changes and HRQoL in European coronary patients., Methods: Data on 8745 coronary patients, from 22 countries, participating in the EUROASPIRE III survey (2006-2007) were used. These patients hospitalized for coronary artery bypass graft, percutaneous coronary intervention, acute myocardial infarction, or myocardial ischaemia were interviewed and examined at least 6 months and no later than 3 years after their hospital admission to gather information on their HRQoL, self-reported lifestyle changes, and risk factors., Results: Significantly better HRQoL scores were found in ex-smokers compared to current smokers. Patients who made an attempt to increase their physical activity level had a better HRQoL compared to those who had not made an attempt. Furthermore dietary changes were associated with HRQoL, with better outcomes in patients who tried to reduce fat and salt intake and increase fish, fruit, and vegetable intake. The intention to change behaviour was not associated with HRQoL., Conclusions: Better HRQoL scores were found in those coronary patients who adopted a healthier lifestyle. The actual lifestyle changes - smoking cessation, increasing physical activity, and adopting a healthy diet - and not the intention to change are associated with better HRQoL outcomes., (© The European Society of Cardiology 2013 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav.)

Background: It is unclear whether a healthy lifestyle mitigates the adverse effects of job strain on coronary artery disease. We examined the associations of job strain and lifestyle risk factors with the risk of coronary artery disease., Methods: We pooled individual-level data from 7 cohort studies comprising 102 128 men and women who were free of existing coronary artery disease at baseline (1985-2000). Questionnaires were used to measure job strain (yes v. no) and 4 lifestyle risk factors: current smoking, physical inactivity, heavy drinking and obesity. We grouped participants into 3 lifestyle categories: healthy (no lifestyle risk factors), moderately unhealthy (1 risk factor) and unhealthy (2-4 risk factors). The primary outcome was incident coronary artery disease (defined as first nonfatal myocardial infarction or cardiac-related death)., Results: There were 1086 incident events in 743,948 person-years at risk during a mean follow-up of 7.3 years. The risk of coronary artery disease among people who had an unhealthy lifestyle compared with those who had a healthy lifestyle (hazard ratio [HR] 2.55, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.18-2.98; population attributable risk 26.4%) was higher than the risk among participants who had job strain compared with those who had no job strain (HR 1.25, 95% CI 1.06-1.47; population attributable risk 3.8%). The 10-year incidence of coronary artery disease among participants with job strain and a healthy lifestyle (14.7 per 1000) was 53% lower than the incidence among those with job strain and an unhealthy lifestyle (31.2 per 1000)., Interpretation: The risk of coronary artery disease was highest among participants who reported job strain and an unhealthy lifestyle; those with job strain and a healthy lifestyle had half the rate of disease. A healthy lifestyle may substantially reduce disease risk among people with job strain.

Background: Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) cause 1.8 million premature (<75 years) death annually in Europe. The majority of these deaths are preventable with the most efficient and cost-effective approach being on the population level. The aim of this position paper is to assist authorities in selecting the most adequate management strategies to prevent CVD., Design and Methods: Experts reviewed and summarized the published evidence on the major modifiable CVD risk factors: food, physical inactivity, smoking, and alcohol. Population-based preventive strategies focus on fiscal measures (e.g. taxation), national and regional policies (e.g. smoke-free legislation), and environmental changes (e.g. availability of alcohol)., Results: Food is a complex area, but several strategies can be effective in increasing fruit and vegetables and lowering intake of salt, saturated fat, trans-fats, and free sugars. Tobacco and alcohol can be regulated mainly by fiscal measures and national policies, but local availability also plays a role. Changes in national policies and the built environment will integrate physical activity into daily life., Conclusion: Societal changes and commercial influences have led to the present unhealthy environment, in which default option in life style increases CVD risk. A challenge for both central and local authorities is, therefore, to ensure healthier defaults. This position paper summarizes the evidence and recommends a number of structural strategies at international, national, and regional levels that in combination can substantially reduce CVD.

To evaluate the effect of a tailored behavior change program on a composite lifestyle change score. A randomized controlled trial conducted in Belgium in 2007-08 with 314 participants allocated to a control and an intervention condition. The intervention was a tailored behavior change program (web-based and individual coaching). The dose of the coaching was chosen by the participants and registered. Outcome measures were weight, saturated fat intake, fruit and vegetable intake, physical activity, smoking status and a composite lifestyle change score. Mann-Whitney U-tests, Kruskal-Wallis tests, t-tests and one-way analyses of variance were used to compare the study conditions and three intervention dose groups (no/low, medium and high intervention dose). There were no significant differences between the study conditions or between the intervention dose groups for the individual lifestyle factors. The composite lifestyle change score was significantly higher in the high intervention dose group compared with the no/low intervention dose group (P = 0.009). The composite lifestyle change score was positively related to the intervention dose, while the individual lifestyle factors were not. Behavior change programs that target multiple lifestyle factors could be evaluated by using a composite lifestyle change score taking into account the intervention dose.

Aim: The aim of the European Action on Secondary and Primary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce Events III (EUROASPIRE III) survey was to determine whether the Joint European Societies' guidelines on cardiovascular prevention are being followed in everyday clinical practice and to describe the lifestyle, risk factor and therapeutic management in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) in Europe., Methods: The EUROASPIRE III survey was carried out in 2006-2007 in 76 centres from selected geographical areas in 22 countries in Europe. Consecutive patients, with a clinical diagnosis of CHD, were identified retrospectively and then followed up, interviewed and examined at least 6 months after their coronary event., Results: Thirteen thousand nine hundred and thirty-five medical records (27% women) were reviewed and 8966 patients were interviewed. At interview, 17% of patients smoked cigarettes, 35% were obese and 53% centrally obese, 56% had a blood pressure >or=140/90 mmHg (>or=130/80 in people with diabetes mellitus), 51% had a serum total cholesterol >or=4.5 mmol/l and 25% reported a history of diabetes of whom 10% had a fasting plasma glucose less than 6.1 mmol/l and 35% a glycated haemoglobin A1c less than 6.5%. The use of cardioprotective medication was: antiplatelets 91%; beta-blockers 80%; angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin-receptor blockers 71%; calcium channel blockers 25% and statins 78%., Conclusion: The EUROASPIRE III survey shows that large proportions of coronary patients do not achieve the lifestyle, risk factor and therapeutic targets for cardiovascular disease prevention. Wide variations in risk factor prevalences and the use of cardioprotective drug therapies exist between countries. There is still considerable potential throughout Europe to raise standards of preventive care in order to reduce the risk of recurrent disease and death in patients with CHD.

Background: The first and second EUROASPIRE surveys showed high rates of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. The third EUROASPIRE survey was done in 2006-07 in 22 countries to see whether preventive cardiology had improved and if the Joint European Societies' recommendations on cardiovascular disease prevention are being followed in clinical practice., Methods: EUROASPIRE I, II, and III were designed as cross-sectional studies and included the same selected geographical areas and hospitals in the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, and Slovenia. Consecutive patients (men and women /=30 kg/m(2)) increased from 25.0% in EUROASPIRE I, to 32.6% in II, and 38.0% in III (p=0.0006). The proportion of patients with raised blood pressure (>/=140/90 mm Hg in patients without diabetes or >/=130/80 mm Hg in patients with diabetes) was similar (58.1% in EUROASPIRE I, 58.3% in II, and 60.9% in III; p=0.49), whereas the proportion with raised total cholesterol (>/=4.5 mmol/L) decreased, from 94.5% in EUROASPIRE I to 76.7% in II, and 46.2% in III (p<0.0001). The frequency of self-reported diabetes mellitus increased, from 17.4%, to 20.1%, and 28.0% (p=0.004)., Interpretation: These time trends show a compelling need for more effective lifestyle management of patients with coronary heart disease. Despite a substantial increase in antihypertensive and lipid-lowering drugs, blood pressure management remained unchanged, and almost half of all patients remain above the recommended lipid targets. To salvage the acutely ischaemic myocardium without addressing the underlying causes of the disease is futile; we need to invest in prevention.

Aim: This paper is a report of a study to describe venous leg ulcer care regarding compression, pain management and lifestyle advice in community settings and to identify factors that predict the provision of lifestyle advice by nurses., Background: Incongruence between evidence and practice in leg ulcer care has been reported. Little is known about predictive factors related to the provision of lifestyle advice., Method: Two focus interviews and a Delphi procedure were used to develop a self-administered questionnaire based on the Graham questionnaire. Nurses employed by community healthcare organizations and independent nurses in private practices participated (n = 789). The data were collected in 2006., Findings: Compression was applied in 58.7% of patients with venous ulcers. Pain was present in 82.9%. A third of patients with pain received analgesics, but half of these patients (52.1%) took analgesics as prescribed. Half of the nurses (50.8%) gave lifestyle advice related to the leg ulcer. It was mainly instructions about leg elevation (68.3%), promoting physical activity (39.8%) and optimizing nutrition (16.7%) that were provided. Nurses who perceived themselves to have adequate leg ulcer knowledge and skills were 3.75 times more likely to provide lifestyle advice compared with those lacking such knowledge and skills. Nurses who found leg ulcer care not rewarding, rarely successful or difficult gave statistically significantly less lifestyle advice than those who found it rather rewarding, successful and not difficult., Conclusion: Patients with leg ulcers receive less than optimum care and patient education. A particular challenge lies in leg ulcer education programmes and pain management.

Background: Our aim was to investigate whether a nurse-coordinated multidisciplinary, family-based preventive cardiology programme could improve standards of preventive care in routine clinical practice., Methods: In a matched, cluster-randomised, controlled trial in eight European countries, six pairs of hospitals and six pairs of general practices were assigned to an intervention programme (INT) or usual care (UC) for patients with coronary heart disease or those at high risk of developing cardiovascular disease. The primary endpoints-measured at 1 year-were family-based lifestyle change; management of blood pressure, lipids, and blood glucose to target concentrations; and prescription of cardioprotective drugs. Analysis was by intention to treat. The trial is registered as ISRCTN 71715857., Findings: 1589 and 1499 patients with coronary heart disease in hospitals and 1189 and 1128 at high risk were assigned to INT and UC, respectively. In patients with coronary heart disease who smoked in the month before the event, 136 (58%) in the INT and 154 (47%) in the UC groups did not smoke 1 year afterwards (difference in change 10.4%, 95% CI -0.3 to 21.2, p=0.06). Reduced consumption of saturated fat (196 [55%] vs 168 [40%]; 17.3%, 6.4 to 28.2, p=0.009), and increased consumption of fruit and vegetables (680 [72%] vs 349 [35%]; 37.3%, 18.1 to 56.5, p=0.004), and oily fish (156 [17%] vs 81 [8%]; 8.9%, 0.3 to 17.5, p=0.04) at 1 year were greatest in the INT group. High-risk individuals and partners showed changes only for fruit and vegetables (p=0.005). Blood-pressure target of less than 140/90 mm Hg was attained by both coronary (615 [65%] vs 547 [55%]; 10.4%, 0.6 to 20.2, p=0.04) and high-risk (586 [58%] vs 407 [41%]; 16.9%, 2.0 to 31.8, p=0.03) patients in the INT groups. Achievement of total cholesterol of less than 5 mmol/L did not differ between groups, but in high-risk patients the difference in change from baseline to 1 year was 12.7% (2.4 to 23.0, p=0.02) in favour of INT. In the hospital group, prescriptions for statins were higher in the INT group (810 [86%] vs 794 [80%]; 6.0%, -0.5 to 11.5, p=0.04). In general practices in the intervention groups, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (297 [29%] INT vs 196 [20%] UC; 8.5%, 1.8 to 15.2, p=0.02) and statins (381 [37%] INT vs 232 [22%] UC; 14.6%, 2.5 to 26.7, p=0.03) were more frequently prescribed., Interpretation: To achieve the potential for cardiovascular prevention, we need local preventive cardiology programmes adapted to individual countries, which are accessible by all hospitals and general practices caring for coronary and high-risk patients.

Background: Some markers of chronic inflammation have been recognized as predictors of cardiovascular risk in apparently healthy subjects and in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). High sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) appears to be the most useful marker in clinical settings. Several studies reported associations between inflammatory markers and other cardiovascular risk factors, such as age, obesity, cholesterol levels, the presence of diabetes mellitus, physical activity, social level and smoking habits. We focussed on the association between C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A (SAA), fibrinogen and leisure time physical activity (LTPA)., Methods: This report deals with the results observed in a sub-sample of the BELSTRESS study. 892 male subjects, free from clinical CHD and major ECG abnormalities, working in the same environment, aged 35-59 years, were selected. A questionnaire was used to estimate the level of leisure time physical activity. Associations between CRP, SAA, fibrinogen and leisure time physical activity were evaluated through univariate and multivariate methods. Subjects taking statins or other lipid lowering medication were excluded from the study., Results: Regular leisure time physical activity is associated with reductions of several cardiovascular risk factors, such as body mass index (BMI), waist hip ratio and the lipid profile. Smokers and low educated subjects had a lower physical activity status. Age adjustment did not alter the means of inflammatory parameters according to the levels of leisure time physical activity. After correction for personal characteristics (BMI, current smoking status, educational level, presence of diabetes and alcohol consumption) no significant relation was found between leisure time physical activity and levels of inflammatory markers. The differences of CRP and fibrinogen according to the level of physical activity, found in bivariate analysis, seem to be explained by linked differences in BMI, or related to current smoking habits. Leisure time physical activity, as reported in this study, is not significantly related to C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A or fibrinogen levels, after correction for other cardiovascular risk factors., Conclusion: These data indicate that leisure time physical activity, as reported in our study, is not an independent predictor of C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A or fibrinogen levels. Possible interactions of physical activity and other cardiovascular risk factors might explain the (indirect) relation we found in the bivariate analysis.

Purpose: To analyze the associations of lifestyle behaviors with educational level and social background based on parental occupation in adolescence., Methods: Data from secondary school pupils participating in the Belgian (Flemish) Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey of the year 2002 (N = 12,490) were analyzed. Multiple logistic regressions adjusting for age and gender were used to assess the effects of parental occupation and pupil educational level on the selected lifestyle behaviors., Results: Pupils of lower educational level reported less healthy food habits, less teeth brushing, less seatbelt use, more TV watching, more smoking, more drunkenness, more use of hashish, and more lifetime use of Ecstasy. Pupils of parents with lower socioeconomic status (SES) (based on the occupation of the head of the household) reported less healthy food habits, less teeth brushing, more TV watching, and less seatbelt use. Daily smoking and the lifetime use of Ecstasy varied among pupils of different parental occupation, although the effect disappeared when the pupils' educational level was introduced into the models. Regular drunkenness and regular use of hashish did not vary among pupils of different SES backgrounds. However, after controlling for educational level, an effect of parental occupation on regular hashish use became visible, with a higher percentage of regular users among the pupils of higher parental occupation., Conclusion: A lower educational level is associated with higher prevalence of indicators of an unhealthy lifestyle. The results are less straightforward for the relationship between SES and lifestyle behaviors.

Background: The plasma concentration of apolipoprotein E might be an important risk factor for various chronic diseases, including coronary heart disease., Objective: To investigate the role of lifestyle-related factors in determining concentrations of apolipoprotein E., Methods: The independent effects of age and several lifestyle-related factors [body mass index (BMI), smoking, consumption of alcohol, physical activity, educational level and poly-unsaturated:saturated fatty acid intake ratio in diet] on the apolipoprotein E concentration were assessed for a sample of 757 middle-aged working men. Multiple log-linear regression models were fitted with additional correction for the apolipoprotein E polymorphism., Results: The overall mean plasma concentration of apolipoprotein E was 3.44 mg/dl with mean levels varying from 2.42 mg/dl in men with the E4/4 phenotype to 8.32 mg/dl in men in the E2/2 group. In multivariate analysis apolipoprotein E levels were found to be significantly positively correlated to BMI (P<0.0001) and consumption of alcohol (P=0.04). The effect of age on the apolipoprotein E concentration was significantly quadratic (P=0.02) with highest levels found in the men aged 40-44 years (levels 13.3% greater than those in the men aged 35-39 years). Subjects with BMI in the range 27-30 kg/m2 had on average a 16.4% higher apolipoprotein E concentration than did men in the group with BMI lower than 23 kg/m2. This adjusted proportional increase amounted to 22.6% for the severely obese subjects (BMI>30 kg/m2). The independent effect of current smoking was only of borderline stat stical significance., Conclusions: These results indicate that age and lifestyle-related factors, such as BMI and to a lesser extent consumption of alcohol and smoking, should be taken into account as possible confounders in the study of the plasma concentration of apolipoprotein E as a risk factor for coronary heart disease.

Background: The association between fibrinogen and smoking behaviour, age, body mass index, blood pressure, heart rate and plasma lipid profile, was assessed in a cohort of middle-aged working men., Methods: Seven hundred and forty five subjects were examined as part of a health intervention programme at the work-site. Nine subjects were excluded from the study because of prevalent diabetes. Correlates of plasma fibrinogen concentrations were evaluated through univariate and multivariate methods., Results: In multiple regression analysis fibrinogen correlated with age, smoking behaviour, apolipoprotein B (apo B) apolipoprotein A-I (apo A-I) and lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) levels, which together explained 11% of the variation in fibrinogen concentration. From this model, fibrinogen concentration was associated with an increase of 13.6 mg/dl for every 10 years' increase in age, 28.2 mg/dl if a person smoked, and 4.6 mg/dl and 3.8 mg/dl with a 20 mg/dl rise in respectively apo B and Lp(a). A 20 mg/dl increase in apo A-I concentrations was estimated to be associated with a 6.0 mg/dl lower fibrinogen level., Conclusion: The data indicate that both biochemical and lifestyle factors are related to the plasma fibrinogen concentration; these interactions may explain partly the relationship between fibrinogen and cardiovascular disease.