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Drawing on Kenyan hip-hop, this article: (1) illustrates the decolonial possibilities of translingualism, including paths to linguistic decolonization; (2) showcases how translingualism can facilitate the recovery of Indigenous hybrid languaging practices; (3) highlights how global Western capitalism threatens translingualism's decolonial potential; and (4) offers further implications for rhetoric and writing scholars and teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: In this introductory article, we advance a unified framework for analysis and interpretation of transfer of overt linguistic structure in language contact situations. Our goal is to demonstrate that fusion, a process whereby results of bilingual practices become grammaticized and conventionalized (see Auer 1999, 2014), is a gradient phenomenon, which applies to a large spectrum of language contact phenomena. Our additional objective is to situate the contributions to this special issue in the context of this approach. Design: The article defines fusion as a central concept underlying the proposed framework, identifies the basic dimensions of fusion and showcases its various outcomes by reviewing extensive contact linguistics literature and the contributions to this special issue. Data and Analysis: In our analysis of contact linguistic phenomena, we draw on available linguistic descriptions of pertinent contact varieties and bilingual practices. We examine these phenomena in terms of fusion and in relation to its three basic dimensions. Findings: This article shows that fusion, being a gradient multifaceted phenomenon, should be analyzed along the following dimensions: (a) the amount of structure affecting the receiving language, (b) the degree of sedimentation of bilingual patterns, (c) the degree of fusional compartmentalization. Significance: The present article identifies and describes manifold outcomes of fusion in terms of three basis dimensions. These dimensions enable one to distinguish fused lects from language mixing and other bilingual phenomena and need therefore be incorporated in future linguistic descriptions and analyses of fused lects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some lesser-known long range theories besides Altaic are discussed in the present article, before special attention is given to the two non-distant hypotheses which purport to substantiate the genetic relationship between Japonic and Ainu as well as between Japonic and Korean. Other assumptions about Japonic, such as Japanese as a 'mixed language', are also evaluated and critically assessed. Furthermore, the reasons why Japanese was linked to such a panoply of linguistic families are also taken in consideration, and a discussion about the fate of "linguistic isolates" is also offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a long period in history, the border between Russian Empire and China was a place of constant and intensive cultural and language contacts, which resulted in the emergence of the Russian-Chinese Pidgin. In the 19th century it was used by no less than one million people around the border with China, in an area of more than 3,000 kilometers long. The grammatical analysis of Russian-Chinese Pidgin reveals several features (e.g. using the imperative as a basic verb form), which can be interpreted not only linguistically but sociologically as well, because they are intertwined with the social positions of the contact groups and their attitudes towards each other. Interestingly, features found in the pidgin's grammar have certain parallels in foreigner-directed talk used nowadays by Russian speakers when communicating with Chinese speakers in the border area, which may indicate there are rather stable linguistic stereotypes associated with these contact situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 2nd language proficiency and linguistic uncertainty on performance and listening effort in mixed language contexts. Method: Thirteen native speakers of Dutch with varying degrees of fluency in English listened to and repeated sentences produced in both Dutch and English and presented in the presence of single-talker competing speech in both Dutch and English. Target and masker language combinations were presented in both blocked and mixed (unpredictable) conditions. In the blocked condition, in each block of trials the target--masker language combination remained constant, and the listeners were informed of both prior to beginning the block. In the mixed condition, target and masker language varied randomly from trial to trial. All listeners participated in all conditions. Performance was assessed in terms of speech reception thresholds, whereas listening effort was quantified in terms of pupil dilation. Results: Performance (speech reception thresholds) and listening effort (pupil dilation) were both affected by 2nd language proficiency (English test score) and target and masker language: Performance was better in blocked as compared to mixed conditions, with Dutch as compared to English targets, and with English as compared to Dutch maskers. English proficiency was correlated with listening performance. Listeners also exhibited greater peak pupil dilation in mixed as compared to blocked conditions for trials with Dutch maskers, whereas pupil dilation during preparation for speaking was higher for English targets as compared to Dutch ones in almost all conditions. Conclusions: Both listener's proficiency in a 2nd language and uncertainty about the target language on a given trial play a significant role in how bilingual listeners attend to speech in the presence of competing speech in different languages, but precise effects also depend on which language is serving as target and which as masker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It was recently claimed, in the International Journal of the Sociology of Language (Issue 242) that the Bildt dialect in Friesland (Netherlands), spoken from the sixteenth century in a region reclaimed from the sea, poses a specimen of so-called "mixed languages", characterised by a split between the source language of the "grammar" (from Frisian) and that of the "lexicon" (from Dutch). This article evaluates the linguistic arguments and poses a rather different conclusion to that above. Many of the grammatical similarities between Frisian and the Bildt dialect are not the result of borrowing or imposition from Frisian, but are (a) shared innovations in Frisian and Dutch based varieties in Friesland (including the Bildt dialect) in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, (b) commonly preserved archaisms, and (c) the result of the convergence of Frisian with Dutch. It is suggested that all early-modern language varieties spoken in Friesland were part of a Sprachbund, that also comprised the vernaculars of North Holland, under the umbrella of the emerging Standard Dutch. This different linguistic interpretation makes the sociolinguistic argument of identity-driven language mixing obsolete, because such a mixing never took place. It can, however, be acknowledged that the current shape of some Dutchbased varieties in Friesland can synchronically be re-analysed in terms of being "mixed languages". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utopian Eskayan language and script has been spoken for at least three generations by a small community on the island of Bohol in the southern Philippines. Speakers, who use the language in special domains, attribute its creation to a legendary ancestor known as Pinay. In this paper I consider the origins of Eskayan vocabulary, showing how lexical models from Cebuano, Spanish and English account for a small proportion of Eskayan lexemes. The traces of these colonial languages lend important clues to the development of the lexicon as a whole, shedding light on the tumultuous historical context in which Eskayan came into being. Further, the patterning of Eskayan vocabulary reveals Pinay's folklinguistic conceptions about the nature of 'language' and linguistic variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sheng and Engsh, Kenya's two major hybrid urban languages, are the subject of this wide-ranging enquiry into the sociolinguistic realities of contemporary Kenya and their impact on politics, media, literature, and popular culture. While the precise boundaries of 'Kenyan English' and, even more so, 'Kenyan Swahili' are hard to establish, English and Swahili form the matrix languages of Engsh and Sheng, which the author prefers to call hybrid 'codes' rather than languages. While Engsh is mainly spoken by upwardly mobile middle-class youth in Western Nairobi, Sheng is spoken by a much larger proportion of urban youth and has evolved from a stigmatized 'ghetto' code in eastern Nairobi into a prestigious code that symbolizes ideological affinity, in-group identity, coolness, generational rebellion, linguistic innovation, and rejection of tribal identities. Yet both languages have contributed to the expression of new forms of cultural meaning and to the construction of a linguistic third space between the global, represented by Western images and artefacts, and the local, represented by Kenyan /African symbols and languages. The growing importance of Sheng and Engsh in Kenyan literature and popular culture blurs established boundaries between Swahili and English, creates a space of hybridity in which multiple voices can be heard, and is likely to eventually expand the literary space in East Africa as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the influence of Russian on the inflectional morphology of Belarusian-Russian and Ukrainian-Russian mixed speech, which are widespread in Belarus and Ukraine. The data come from two corpora of spontaneous family conversations in mixed speech collected at seven locations in each country. The analysis focuses exclusively on phenomena of verb inflection. The common supposition in contact linguistics that the more regular (more 'natural') structures of one of the two contact or donor languages become established in the mixed variety can be only conditionally confirmed. Common forms of Standard Russian and Ukrainian (or Belarusian) dialects, instead, are wide-spread in the corpus. In general, verb inflection is more resistant to the results of language contact than noun inflection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses linguistic repertoires of teachers and students and the concept of communicative repertoires and its uses for building student's linguistic repertoire. Topics include bilingualism, multilingualism, and hybrid language practices and the value of communicative practices and literacies encompassing multiple languages and practices for purposeful socialization. Other topics include language maps, learning over time, and how teachers and students learn from each other.

A substantial body of research has collectively concluded that encouraging students to draw flexibly on multiple aspects of their linguistic repertoires is positively associated with developing bilingualism, metalinguistic awareness, and academic skills. However, most bilingual education programs—including transitional and dual-language—limit, discourage, and/or stigmatize such practices. This study examines literature discussion in a fifth-grade bilingual education classroom, in which the teacher valued, supported, and facilitated hybrid language practices. The findings illuminate the ways in which the teacher and students flexibly used their linguistic and cultural resources to understand the text content and language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Education policy always appears to be controversial, especially in post-colonial nations. In Vanuatu, the dual educative system inherited from the period of colonization has raised many debates. The government of Vanuatu is certainly aware of national educational issues in the school system such as the poor literacy rate and high school fees but finding solutions in a complex multilingual context is difficult. As a sovereign state Vanuatu not only has to articulate its own linguistic problems while dealing with a complex linguistic colonial heritage, but needs to pay specific attention to donors since the country is still economically dependent. As in many others states, Vanuatu has to simultaneously deal with local issues and global interests. Through the example of Vanuatu's national education policy, this article shows how global pressures and national linguistic ideologies can influence decisions made in a post-colonial state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Langage & Societe is the property of Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This review article argues that contemporary mainstream second language acquisition research has extremely little, if any, impact on current scholarship in creole linguistics. After a promise of an active synergy between the two subfields 30 years ago, genuine engagement slowed to a virtual stop by the mid-1980s as both fields continued to develop on their separate paths. It is suggested that part of this diffusion is related to the historical orientation of creole linguistics as opposed to the psychological orientation of second language acquisition research. Three books by leading creole scholars are then considered, each representing one of the three major schools of thought in contemporary creole linguistics. It is found that despite the inherent interest and value of each of the volumes, none seriously engages with current second language acquisition research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A small lexicon of traditional weaving (telar de cintura), collected in Agallpampa (Otuzco, La Libertad) offers evidence against the idea of any linguistic identity being shared between the area of the now extinct Culle language, and the Cajamarca Valley. Yet, such a link is supported by the isolation of a grammatical element, traced to the Culle language in both areas: diminutive suix --ash--, as in cholasho 'young little man' and chinasha 'young little woman'. These contrasting data shed new light on a discussion begun by Torero (1989) about the existence of particular languages in the central Cajamarca area (languages Den and Cat); and continued by Adelaar with Muysken (2004), who suggest that cases of lexical community between the Culle geographical nucleus and indigenous words of Cajamarca Quechua, which cannot be traced back to Quechua idiomatic sources, suggest that a Culle substratum holds for the Cajamarca Valley. his paper argues that, in order to solve this apparent paradox, it is necessary to focus on this issue in terms of linguistic strata: i.e., different stages of idiomatic hegemony before Quechua and Spanish were established in the region. he oldest stratum would be associated with Den, and the more recent, albeit still prior to the Quechua and Spanish periods, would be Culle. Based upon archaeological research in the area and on the recent association of Cajamarca Quechua with the Huari expansion (Adelaar 2012), I suggest that the chronological distance between both strata must be deep, since Culle would have been established in the region long before the Northern Huari expansion took place. Nonetheless, the existence of Quechua-Den mixed toponyms precludes this hypothesis being applied to the whole Cajamarca territory, especially its southwest area (Contumazá). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Hellenic Studies / Etudes Helleniques is the property of Centre for Hellenic Studies & Research Canada-KEEK and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Hellenic Studies / Etudes Helleniques is the property of Centre for Hellenic Studies & Research Canada-KEEK and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the context of the spread of English language across the globe, it cannot remain 'pure', permanent and safe in its structure. Changes are inevitable. Like most languages, English too has changed and incorporated new patterns of contact with other languages and the changing communication needs of the people. Code switching and code mixing are well-known traits in the speech pattern of an average bilingual in any human society the world over. As a multilingual and multicultural society, India is not an exception. Hinglish, a combination of Hindi and English, has become a new medium of communication among masses in India. It is an interesting medley of arbitrary words from Hindi and English, employed effortlessly and spontaneously in different domains. It is widely practiced in houses, offices, markets, playgrounds--almost everywhere. The resurgence of Hindi in the recent years is one of the prime movers of Hinglish in India and it has given a tremendous boost to its functional relevance in the present linguistic environment. Hindi no longer considers English as its arch rival. The equation has changed globally. English and Hindi have come closer and they get on perfectly, when they work in tandem. Now it is a winning mix. This blend becomes a new mantra in social acceptance, prestige, and success. It has a great cementing force that connects people and places equally with ease. The paper draws together the different threads of Hinglish, its origin, growth and traces various reasons that lead to its pervasiveness in India and abroad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Life & School: a Magazine for the Theory and Practice of Education / Život i škola : časopis za teoriju i praksu odgoja i obrazovanja is the property of Zivot i Skola and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Does it take bilinguals longer to process mixed-language information? This study explores, in two reaction time experiments, the hypothesis that there is only a cost to language switching when the switch is unexpected in the context. Prior to the experiments, an on-line language test and a linguistic background questionnaire were employed to select the bilingual participants. In experiment 1, the subjects, who were Mandarin Chinese-Taiwanese bilinguals, were led to think that Mandarin Chinese was the contextually appropriate language, and were slower to respond on a language switch trial. In experiment 2, the participants were led to think that both languages were contextually appropriate, and were not slower to respond on a language switch trial. The data support Grosjean's language mode hypothesis on the mixed-language processing cost, and show that the cost is a result of context rather than an inevitable consequence of a switch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics is the property of Universidade de Vigo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The status of Gullah and Bahamian Creole English (BahCE) within the Atlantic English creoles and their historical relationship with African American Vernacular English (AAVE) have long been a matter of discussion. It was assumed that Gullah and BahCE are ‘sister’ varieties sharing an immediate ancestor in the eighteenth-century creole English spoken on plantations in the American South. We present historical and linguistic data, including a statistical analysis of 253 phonological, lexical, and grammatical features found in eight Atlantic English creoles, to show that Gullah and BahCE are indeed closely related — so closely in fact that BahCE must be considered a ‘diaspora variety’ not of AAVE but of Gullah. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phonologically conditioned allomorphy is sometimes determined by universal marking conditions derived from low-ranked constraints, which is viewed as an effect of the emergence of the unmarked (TETU) in optimality theory. In this paper we present two case studies that make crucial use of allomorph selection as TETU but also of an additional property of the lexical representation of allomorphs, namely lexical ordering of allomorphs. The first case is the puzzling selection of definite marker in Haitian Creole (analyzed as an instance of anti-markedness in previous OT works), which yields to an appropriate analysis in terms of allomorph ordering. In the second case study, gender allomorph selection in Catalan, we propose a constraint Respect that ensures compliance with idiosyncratic lexical specifications, which further interacts with allomorph selection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The author discusses Bonin English during the United States Navy occupation of the Bonin Islands off of Japan in the 1960's. The Islands were isolated at that time so there was little linguistic contact with the outside world. According to the author, the island children were not allowed to use Japanese in school and were punished for doing so by the Navy-employed schoolteachers. The author states that children raised during the Navy Era acquired Ogasawara Mixed Language (OML) first and then learned mainstream Japanese or English later. Postwar Bonin English had several sources including Bonin Creoloid English and varieties of United States English especially Hawaiian English, reports the author.

This paper looks at the processes involved in the genesis of three pidgins of New Guinea. I will argue that the main principle at work in the formation of the morphosyntax of pidgins is a general human capacity for language simplification, but that these processes of simplification are subject both to the effects of specific linguistic features in the local multilingual contact situation that gives rise to the pidgin and to constraints resulting from a universal linguistic endowment. By a comparative look across a range of morphosyntactic features at the processes of simplification that produced three unrelated pidgins of New Guinea, Yimas Pidgin, Hiri Motu and Tok Pisin, the article exemplifies some of the types of structures that can result in pidgins from this general human capacity for language simplification, sifted through both local conditions and universal constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language modeling is a current research topic in many domains including speech recognition, optical character recognition, handwriting recognition, machine translation and spelling correction. There are two main types of language models, the mathematical and the linguistic. The most widely used mathematical language model is the n-gram model inferred from statistics. This model has three problems: long distance restriction, recursive nature and partial language understanding. Language models based on linguistics present many difficulties when applied to large scale real texts. We present here a new hybrid language model that combines the advantages of the n-gram statistical language model with those of a linguistic language model which makes use of grammatical or semantic rules. Using suitable rules, this hybrid model can solve problems such as long distance restriction, recursive nature and partial language understanding. The new language model has been effective in experiments and has been incorporated in Chinese sentence input products for Windows and Macintosh OS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses McCormick's sociolinguistic study Language in Cape Town's District Six [McCormick, K., 2003. Language in Cape Town's District Six. Oxford University Press, Oxford] and locates it within the fields of South African sociolinguistics and language contact studies. McCormick's work raises pertinent questions about sociolinguistic historiography, fieldwork methodology, bilingualism, (socio-)linguistic meaning, and the permeability of linguistic boundaries in language contact. McCormick approaches bilingual speech first and fore- most from a code-switching perspective, broadly combining Myers-Scotton's markedness model with conversation-analysis approaches (Gumperz/Auer). However, there is also evidence in the data that conversational language use in this bilingual working-class community can be interpreted within the framework of mixed languages and bilingual convergence. This raises important questions about norm formation and stabilization in language contact situations, and about the diachronic trajectories of bilingual speech. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses Creole exceptionalism. "Against Creole exceptionalism" (ACE) combines an accusation that. the views of many. perhaps most of his creolist colleagues are vitiated by racial prejudice with the espousal of a theory of Creole genesis that has been around for a century or more without earning the support of more than a handful of creolists. ACE mounts a single-minded crusade against what is probably a majority of creolists, including several of the invited contributors. Creole languages are not exceptional and should he treated as legitimate offspring of their main texifiers, just as Irish English is treated as a legitimate offspring of English. or Romance languages of Latin. There is, of course, no sense in which the first belief entails the second; for instance, the first is logically compatible with the belief that Creoles are superior to other languages. Yet no arguments are advanced to demonstrate linkage between the two. It is customary to base ones disagreement of words which that scholar actually wrote or uttered.

Attitudes to use of creole languages are explored, particularly with regard to how these attitudes intersect with attitudes about gender. The focus is principally on attitudes to Pidgin in Hawai'i but parallels are drawn with another Pacific creole, Bislama. Attitudes to Pidgin use are viewed through respondents' evaluations of the terms moke and tita — social categories that prototypically denote Pidgin-speaking, Locals of Polynesian descent (moke for males; tita for females). Evaluations of tita provide indirect and covert evidence that, as in many speech communities, female speakers of the (creole) vernacular are evaluated more negatively than male speakers are and often in normative sexual terms. The notion of 'non-standardness' is discussed in relation to the process of constructing normative ideologies about gender and language in a creole speech community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the salient features of Bislama, an English-lexifier pidgin/creole that is spoken in Vanuatu, is the presence of a suffix on transitive verbs of the shape -Vm. This paper traces the historical development of this suffix from its sporadic appearance in the early nineteenth century to its very regular use in present-day Bislama. This paper demonstrates that there has not been a simple progression from occasional use of -Vm to general use over time. Rather, the suffix went through some fits and starts and at one stage almost disappeared before regaining vigour, eventually generalising to the productive pattern that we find today. Substrate languages have played a part in this, though there has not been a single direct substrate parallel. In the earliest years, there was somewhat indirect Australian substrate influence, while only later was there reinforcement from Oceanic substrate patterns. However, purely language-internal pressures also played a part, and the generalisation of the transitive marker was not simply a case of direct substrate modelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Verb-fronting phenomena were a recurrent topic of research on the Indian Ocean creoles by Chris Corne, whose work led him to reject the view of creoles as a distinct structural type. A comparison with Cantonese, as a representative of Sinitic vernaculars, with Mauritian creole as described by Corne, shows that most of the properties are shared. In particular, the structure with the verb copied in initial position is associated in both languages with the functions of concession and of emphasis, which may take the form of either topicalization or focusing. The comparison adds to the typological properties shared by creoles and the Sinitic languages and demonstrates that verb-fronting is not specific to creole grammars, adding to Corne's case that creoles do not constitute a unique structural type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the linguistic commercialism in and around the Paston and Cely letters. Effects of limited interest of philologists in both the English fifteenth century in general and late medieval prose; Role of commercial jargons in the two collection; Influence of capitalist commercialism on English correspondence of the fifteenth century.

Discusses the development of a French lexifier creole, Reunionnais, which has often been dubbed a semi-creole because of its acrolectal features. French input heard by the Reunionnais; Characteristics of spoken French during the time; Periphrastic verbal constructions.

Discusses a detailed diachronic study of the lexically French Cayenne Creole of French Guiana revealing the preverbal tense-aspect marker system that differs significantly from the system claimed to be typical of creole languages. Examination of the roles and evolution of the marker system that began with the nonpunctual marker and then added the irrealis marker; Analysis of the anterior marker showing the last element to be added to the system.

Discusses the development of Pidgin English. Origins and composition; Texts and notes; Vernacular versions of the language.

Discusses the prevalence of the definition of a creole language as a pidgin language which has become the native language of a speech community. Evolutive tendencies within the French language and the contribution of popular and dialectical varieties of French to the formation of creoles; Support for the notion that some, if not all the French Creoles came into being without prior pidginisation.

A publication dealing with language contact and change ends with the statement that "the field remains chaotic in that it combines concepts from different descriptions. The is no hope for unification, but perhaps the possibility of greater awareness of what are the common theme and issue." Although the assessment strikes a rather discouraging note, linguists endeavoring to reconcile relevant data with diverging interpretations cannot but continue their search for at least a modicum of uniformity and order. It is the intention of the author of this article to discuss few key issues such as scholarly attitudes and discuss some selective data in the light of the interlanguage hypothesis. The author also looks into the role of translation in language contact.

The article presents a review of the literature on pidgins and creole linguistics. The social contexts that fostered the linguistic genesis of pidgins and creoles is discussed. The overall sophistication of the linguistic analyses done on pidgins and creoles has sharply increased. One of the main issues in pidgin and creole studies is whether pidgins and creoles represent a special type of language. The genetic relationship between pidgins and their substrates or superstrates is a crucial one to sort out.

'Mixed Language,' a characteristic pattern of language use among African township residents in South Africa, may well include words or full constituents from several languages. However, from both a structural and a social perspective, such speech has a systematic nature. In reference to grammatical structure, within any CP (projection of COMP) showing codeswitching, only one language (the Matrix Language) provides the grammatical frame in the data studied. Also, while speakers from different educational levels engage in codeswitching with similar frequencies, the types of codeswitched constitutents they prefer are different. In reference to the social use of language, we argue that specific patterns of codeswitching indicate how language is both an index of identity and a tool of communication in South Africa. In the codeswitching patterns they use, speakers exhibit strong loyalty to their own first languages. Yet, because they recognize that codeswitching facilitates communication with members of other ethnic groups, they use a number of codeswitching strategies as a means of accommodating to their addressees and simultaneously as a means of projecting multiple identities for themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines Slavic-Roumanian linguistic contacts. The questions of Slavic-Roumanian interlingual contacts undoubtedly do not belong to an unimportant and uninteresting sphere of Linguistic Balkanology and Carpathology. In the course of history, these contacts led to different Slavic-Roumanian interferences at all levels of language. These manifest themselves in the following way: 1) the impact of the Slavic language-systems on the system of Roumanian, and; 2) the impact of Roumanian on various structural forms in the Slavic languages.

This article focuses on the use of makeshift language in case of a compulsory interaction between men of two different languages. When men of different languages are thrown into contact and must reach an understanding, four courses are open to them. If their contact is brief and discontinuous and limited to very simple transactions, speech may be dispensed with. Members of two linguistic groups may speak a third language which they have already learned in other contacts, i.e., a lingua franca. Members of one group may learn efficiently the language of a second group. But there is a fourth possible course, which may leave a permanent mark upon linguistic and social history. Neither group may be in a position to learn the other's language or a common third tongue at all correctly, so that both will be content with an imperfect approximation to one of the languages: a debased or pidginized or jargonized form, a minimum or makeshift language. On a small and temporary scale the use of makeshift language is a universal phenomenon, to be witnessed wherever immigrants, invaders, tourists, or sailors go.