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Objective: Although magnetic resonance imaging is the primary modality of investigation for determining the extent of posterior ligamentous complex (PLC) injuries in lower lumbar fractures (LLF) (L3-L5), the reliability of computed tomography (CT) has not been well defined. The main objective of this study is to analyze the diagnostic accuracy of combined CT findings for detecting PLC injury in patients with LLF., Methods: We retrospectively analyzed data from 108 patients who presented with traumatic LLF. CT parameters like loss of vertebral body height, local kyphosis, retropulsion of fracture fragment, interlaminar distance, interspinous distance, supraspinous distance, interpedicular distance, canal compromise, facet joint diastasis in axial images (FJD A ) and facet joint diastasis in sagittal images (FJD S ), and presence of lamina and spinous process fracture were calculated using axial and sagittal CT images. The presence or absence of PLC injury was determined using magnetic resonance imaging as a reference standard., Results: Among 108 patients, PLC injury was identified in 57 (52.8%). On univariate analysis, local kyphosis, retropulsion of fracture fragment, interlaminar distance, interpedicular distance, FJD S , FJD A , and the presence of spinous process fracture were found to be significant (P < 0.05) in predicting PLC injury. Whereas on multivariate logistic regression analysis, FJD S (P = 0.039) and FJD A (P = 0.003) were found to be variables independently associated with PLC injury., Conclusions: Among the various CT parameters, facet joint diastasis (FJD S > 4.2 mm and FJD A > 3.5 mm) is the most reliable factor in determining PLC injury., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background Context: Patients with lower lumbar stenosis and disc herniation report disability in standing and ambulation, despite normal neurological examination. The L5 and S1 nerve roots support the entire motor and sensory function of the foot, and their radiculopathy can affect foot loading during standing and walking. This has not been quantified before., Purpose: To quantify alterations in static and dynamic foot pressure transfers in patients with lower lumbar nerve root compression, and document any beneficial effects of surgical decompression., Study Design: Prospective, case-control study., Patient Sample: Cases-Patients with unilateral radiculopathy (L5/S1) with normal neurology (n=50); Controls - Healthy volunteers (n=50)., Methods: The volunteers and patients underwent pedobarographic analysis during standing (static) and walking (dynamic), and fifteen (12 dynamic and three static) parameters were documented. The patient's preoperative values were compared with that of the healthy volunteers. All the 50 patients underwent surgical decompression, and clinical outcome measures (VAS/ODI at 3 months) were documented. Pedobarographic analysis was repeated in the postoperative period (48 hours) and 3-month follow-up and compared with the preoperative scores., Results: In healthy controls, the mean values of all 15 parameters were comparable between the right and the left side (p>.05). When compared to controls, the patients had significantly lower maximum foot loads (p=.01) and average foot loads (p=.05) on the affected side during walking indicating lesser load transmission, in the preoperative period. Within the affected foot, the load transfer was higher on the first metatarsal/ medial arch while significantly less on the lateral metatarsals (p=.04). The percentage load on whole foot and forefoot was significantly less on standing (p=.01). Significant improvements were noted in the postoperative period, especially in the maximum foot surface area (p=.01), maximum and average foot loads, and improved weight transfers on lateral arch and forefoot (p=.02). The load on whole foot increased significantly from 46.1%±5.5% (preoperative) to 48.1%±5.5% (postoperative) and 49.9%±3.3% at follow-up (p=.01)., Conclusion: This is the first study using pedobarography to document altered foot pressure patterns during ambulation in patients with disc herniation and stenosis. Decreased load transfer, asymmetrical and unphysiological distribution of pressures on the affected foot were observed during weight bearing, which improved after surgical decompression., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To understand lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LSTV)-associated degenerative pathologies and their correlation to low back pain and radicular pain., Methods: Whole-spine magnetic resonance imaging was evaluated for disc degeneration using Pfirrmann grading, end plate changes using total end plate score (TEPS), and facet tropism in patients with low back pain and radicular pain, and their association with LSTV was analyzed., Results: In group 1, LSTV was seen in 15% of patients with 83% of these patients having sacralization. Disc degeneration was seen in 58%, 51%, and 63% of patients at levels C, B, and A, respectively; patients with sacralization had significant degeneration at all 3 levels. Similarly, the total end plate score and facet tropism were significantly higher in patients with sacralization. Facet tropism was observed in 31%, 40%, and 35% of patients with no -LSTV, patients with sacralization, and patients with lumbarization, respectively. In group 2, LSTV was seen in 17% of patients with sacralization accounting for 82%. Disc degeneration was seen in 44%, 36%, and 54% patients at levels C, B, and A, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the mean total end plate score between groups. Facet tropism was identified in 89% and 81% of patients with sacralization and patients with lumbarization, respectively, compared with only 19% of patients with no LSTV., Conclusions: Patients with low back pain had a higher incidence of sacralization with corresponding disc degeneration, facet tropism ,and end plate changes. In patients with radicular pain, lumbarization was associated only with facet tropism. These findings may aid clinicians in prognostication and patient counseling., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Various techniques of performing lumbar discectomy are prevalent, each having its rationale and claimed benefits. The authors ventured to assess the perioperative factors, outcomes, and complications of each procedure and compare among them with 946 patients contributed by 10 centers and operated by experienced surgeons., Methods: This was a retrospective study of patients operated using open discectomy, microdiscectomy, microendoscopic discectomy, interlaminar endoscopic lumbar discectomy, transforaminal endoscopic lumbar discectomy, and Destandau techniques with a follow-up of minimum 2 years. The inclusion criteria were age >18 years, failed conservative treatment for 4-6 weeks, and the involvement of a single lumbar level., Results: There was a significant improvement in the visual analog scale score of back, leg, and Oswestry Disability Index scores postoperatively across the board, with no significant difference between them. Minimally invasive procedures (microendoscopic discectomy, interlaminar endoscopic lumbar discectomy, transforaminal endoscopic lumbar discectomy, and Destandau techniques) had shorter operation time, hospital stay, better cosmesis, and decreased blood loss compared with open procedures (open discectomy and microdiscectomy). The overall complication rate was 10.1%. The most common complication was recurrence (6.86%), followed by reoperation (4.3%), cerebrospinal fluid leak (2.24%), wrong level surgery (0.74%), superficial infection (0.62%), and deep infection (0.37%). There were minor differences in incidence of complications between techniques., Conclusion: Although minimally invasive techniques have some advantages over the open techniques in the perioperative factors, all the techniques are effective and provide similar pain relief and functional outcomes at the end of 2 years. The various rates of individual complications provide a reference value for future studies., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Neurodeficit due to lumbar disc herniation (LDH) is a serious complication and can range from sensory hypoesthesia in a single dermatome to a debilitating condition like cauda equina syndrome (CES). Many authors have described variable clinical and radiological risk factors for neurodeficit in LDH. Similarly the prognostic factors influencing recovery have been variable across the studies. This narrative review discusses the pathogenesis, most consistent factors associated with the occurrence of neurodeficit in LDH patients and also the factors which have a prognostic role in recovery. Pathological mechanisms like venous congestion, neuronal ischaemia and multiple root impairment act either individually or in combination to result in neurodeficit in LDH patients. Among the clinical risk factors, diabetes mellitus and acute onset of symptoms have been associated with neurodeficit while pre-existing spinal canal stenosis, non-contained discs (sequestrated/migrated) are potential radiological risk factors for developing neurodeficit. When considering prognostic factors for recovery, pre-operative muscle strength is the only significant factor. Knowledge about the causative and prognostic factors in neurodeficit following LDH would help in the successful management of this condition.

Study Design: Case report OBJECTIVE: To present three cases of coronal vertebral dislocation due to congenital multiple thoracic and lumbar pedicle agenesis., Summary of Background Data: Congenital pedicle agenesis is an uncommon condition and is frequently identified as an incidental finding on diagnostic imaging in asymptomatic individuals. This agenesis is frequently limited to a single level and is commonly seen in the cervical and lumbar spine., Methods: We report three patients who presented with multiple thoracic and lumbar pedicle agenesis resulting in coronal vertebral dislocation. The patients presented with progressive kyphoscoliosis deformity. Identification of this malformation on conventional radiographs is difficult, and computed tomographic (CT) scan with 3D reconstruction provides a better delineation of the deformity., Results: Computed tomography showed complete absence of pedicles and dissociation of anterior column from the posterior column, resulting in coronal vertebral dislocation. Magnetic resonance imaging confirmed the absence of pedicles and decreased anteroposterior diameter, causing canal stenosis. Two patients were treated by spanning internal fixation, partial deformity correction, and posterior fusion, with satisfactory results., Conclusion: Coronal vertebral dislocation can be easily missed on plain radiograph because many patients with severe scoliotic deformity have thin or sclerotic pedicles. Computed tomography is essential to demonstrate these anomalies. It is important to recognize pedicle aplasia early to prevent rapid progression of deformity and neurologic deficit., (Copyright © 2018 Scoliosis Research Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Although imaging has a major role in evaluation and management of thoracolumbar spinal trauma by spine surgeons, the exact role of computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in addition to radiographs for fracture classification and surgical decision-making is unclear., Methods: Spine surgeons (n = 41) from around the world classified 30 thoracolumbar fractures. The cases were presented in a three-step approach: first plain radiographs, followed by CT and MRI images. Surgeons were asked to classify according to the AOSpine classification system and choose management in each of the three steps., Results: Surgeons correctly classified 43.4 % of fractures with plain radiographs alone; after, additionally, evaluating CT and MRI images, this percentage increased by further 18.2 and 2.2 %, respectively. AO type A fractures were identified in 51.7 % of fractures with radiographs, while the number of type B fractures increased after CT and MRI. The number of type C fractures diagnosed was constant across the three steps. Agreement between radiographs and CT was fair for A-type (k = 0.31), poor for B-type (k = 0.19), but it was excellent between CT and MRI (k > 0.87). CT and MRI had similar sensitivity in identifying fracture subtypes except that MRI had a higher sensitivity (56.5 %) for B2 fractures (p < 0.001). The need for surgical fixation was deemed present in 72 % based on radiographs alone and increased to 81.7 % with CT images (p < 0.0001). The assessment for need of surgery did not change after an MRI (p = 0.77)., Conclusion: For accurate classification, radiographs alone were insufficient except for C-type injuries. CT is mandatory for accurately classifying thoracolumbar fractures. Though MRI did confer a modest gain in sensitivity in B2 injuries, the study does not support the need for routine MRI in patients for classification, assessing instability or need for surgery.

Purpose: The aim of this multicentre study was to determine whether the recently introduced AOSpine Classification and Injury Severity System has better interrater and intrarater reliability than the already existing Thoracolumbar Injury Classification and Severity Score (TLICS) for thoracolumbar spine injuries., Methods: Clinical and radiological data of 50 consecutive patients admitted at a single centre with a diagnosis of an acute traumatic thoracolumbar spine injury were distributed to eleven attending spine surgeons from six different institutions in the form of PowerPoint presentation, who classified them according to both classifications. After time span of 6 weeks, cases were randomly rearranged and sent again to same surgeons for re-classification. Interobserver and intraobserver reliability for each component of TLICS and new AOSpine classification were evaluated using Fleiss Kappa coefficient (k value) and Spearman rank order correlation., Results: Moderate interrater and intrarater reliability was seen for grading fracture type and integrity of posterior ligamentous complex (Fracture type: k = 0.43 ± 0.01 and 0.59 ± 0.16, respectively, PLC: k = 0.47 ± 0.01 and 0.55 ± 0.15, respectively), and fair to moderate reliability (k = 0.29 ± 0.01 interobserver and 0.44+/0.10 intraobserver, respectively) for total score according to TLICS. Moderate interrater (k = 0.59 ± 0.01) and substantial intrarater reliability (k = 0.68 ± 0.13) was seen for grading fracture type regardless of subtype according to AOSpine classification. Near perfect interrater and intrarater agreement was seen concerning neurological status for both the classification systems., Conclusions: Recently proposed AOSpine classification has better reliability for identifying fracture morphology than the existing TLICS. Additional studies are clearly necessary concerning the application of these classification systems across multiple physicians at different level of training and trauma centers to evaluate not only their reliability and reproducibility, but also the other attributes, especially the clinical significance of a good classification system.

Purpose: Our aim was to study the safety and outcomes of posterior instrumentation and transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) for treating pyogenic lumbar spondylodiscitis., Methods: Retrospective analysis was performed on prospectively collected data of 27 consecutive cases of lumbar pyogenic spondylodiscitis treated with posterior instrumentation and TLIF between January 2009 and December 2012. Cases were analysed for safety, radiological and clinical outcomes of transforaminal interbody fusion using bone graft ± titanium cages. Interbody metallic cages with bone graft were used in 17 cases and ten cases used only bone graft. Indications for surgical treatment were failed conservative management in 17, neurodeficit in six and significant bony destruction in four., Results: There were no cases reporting cage migration, loosening, pseudoarthrosis or recurrence of infection at a mean follow-up of 30 months. Clinical outcomes were assessed using Kirkaldy-Willis criteria, which showed 14 excellent, nine good, three fair and one poor result. Mean focal deformity improved with the use of bone graft ± interbody cages, and the deformity correction was maintained at final follow-up. Mean pre-operative focal lordosis for the graft group was 8.5° (2-16.5°), which improved to 10.9 °(3.3-16°); mean pre-operative focal lordosis in the group treated with cages was 6.7 °(0-15°), which improved to 7°(0-15°) ., Conclusion: TLIFs with cages in patients with pyogenic lumbar spondylodiscitis allows for acceptable clearance of infection, satisfactory deformity correction with low incidence of cage migration, loosening and infection recurrence.

Purpose: Although the exact mechanisms that lead to degenerative disc disease (DDD) are not well understood, a significant genetic influence has been found. Focusing on DDD that occurs in young adults can be valuable in determining the exact role of genetic predisposition to DDD., Methods: Patients (<40 years) with lumbar disc degeneration were evaluated with MRI imaging (1.5 Tesla) and genetic association analysis for 58 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of 35 candidate genes was performed. Disc degeneration of individual discs of lumbar spine from L1 to S1 was graded by Pfirrmann's grading. The subjects were stratified into two groups based on Total Disc Degenerative Score (TDDS). Based on TDDS, the severity of DDD was classified as mild (Group A: TDDS <10) and severe (Group B: TDDS >10)., Results: 695 Indian subjects including 308 with mild TDDS and 387 with severe TDDS were studied. The mean age of the patients was 29.6 ± 6.9 years in group A and 31.7 ± 6.1 in group B (p < 0.05). Five of the 35 candidate genes viz., rs1337185 of COL11A (p = 0.02), rs5275 (p = 0.03) and rs5277 (p = 0.05) of COX2, rs7575934 of IL1F5 (p = 0.04), rs3213718 of CALM1 (p = 0.04) and rs162509 of ADAMTS5 (p = 0.04) were found to be significantly associated with severe TDDS., Conclusion: The study identifies specific SNP associations of five genes in young adults with severe lumbar disc degeneration. These five genes (COL11A1, ADAMTS5, CALM1, IL1F5 and COX2) have different functions in the matrix metabolism, intracellular signalling and inflammatory cascade. This shows that disc degeneration is a complex disease with an intricate interplay of multiple genetic polymorphisms.

Background Context: Traditional short-segment fixation of unstable thoracolumbar injuries can be associated with progressive kyphosis and implant failure. Load sharing classification (LSC) recommends supplemental anterior reconstruction for fractures of score 7 or greater. Posterior fixation including the fractured vertebra (PFFV) has biomechanical advantages over conventional short-segment fixation. However, its efficacy in severe thoracolumbar injuries (LSC≥7) has not been studied., Purpose: To study the clinical, functional, and radiologic results of PFFV for severe, unstable thoracolumbar injuries (LSC≥7) at a minimum of 2 years., Study Design: A retrospective review of case records., Patient Sample: Thirty-two patients with an unstable burst fracture of LSC≥7 treated with PFFV were included., Outcome Measures: They included clinical outcomes: American Spinal Injury Association grade, visual analog scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI); and radiologic measures: segmental kyphosis angle, vertebral wedge angle, and percentage loss of anterior and posterior vertebral height., Methods: Thirty-two patients with LSC≥7 who had undergone PFFV, with a minimum follow-up of 2 years were studied for demographic, injury, and surgical details. Clinical and radiologic outcomes were measured before surgery and at 6, 12, and 24 months postoperatively. The presence of screw breakage, screw pullout, peri-implant loosening, and rod breakage were considered as criteria for implant failure., Results: None of the patients had postoperative implant failure at the final follow-up. The mean preoperative kyphosis angle was 22.9°±7.6°. This improved significantly to 9.2°±6.6° after surgery (p=.000). There was a loss of mean 2.4° (mean kyphosis angle of 11.6°±6.3°) at the final follow-up. The mean preoperative wedge angle was 23.0°±8.1°. This was corrected to 9.7°±6.2° (p=.000). There was a loss of kyphosis (mean 1.2°) in the follow-up period. The mean anterior and posterior vertebral height also showed significant improvements postoperatively, which were maintained at the final follow-up. The mean ODI and VAS scores at the end of 2 years were 17.5% and 1.6, respectively., Conclusions: Reduction of unstable thoracolumbar injuries even with LSC≥7 can be achieved and maintained with the use of short-segment pedicle screw fixation including the fractured vertebra, avoiding the need for anterior reconstruction. In the current era of evolving concepts of fracture fixation, the relevance of LSC in the management of unstable burst fractures is questionable., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background Context: Existing research on lumbar disc degeneration has remained inconclusive regarding its etiology, pathogenesis, symptomatology, prevention, and management. Degenerative disc disease (DDD) and disc prolapse (DP) are common diseases affecting the lumbar discs. Although they manifest clinically differently, existing studies on disc degeneration have included patients with both these features, leading to wide variations in observations. The possible relationship or disaffect between DDD and DP is not fully evaluated., Purpose: To analyze the patterns of lumbar disc degeneration in patients with chronic back pain and DDD and those with acute DP., Study Design: Prospective, magnetic resonance imaging-based radiological study., Methods: Two groups of patients (aged 20-50 years) were prospectively studied. Group 1 included patients requiring a single level microdiscectomy for acute DP. Group 2 included patients with chronic low back pain and DDD. Discs were assessed by magnetic resonance imaging through Pfirmann grading, Schmorl nodes, Modic changes, and the total end-plate damage score for all the five lumbar discs., Results: Group 1 (DP) had 91 patients and group 2 (DDD) had 133 patients. DP and DDD patients differed significantly in the number, extent, and severity of degeneration. DDD patients had a significantly higher number of degenerated discs than DP patients (p<.000). The incidence of multilevel and pan-lumbar degeneration was also significantly higher in DDD group. The pattern of degeneration also differed in both the groups. DDD patients had predominant upper lumbar involvement, whereas DP patients had mainly lower lumbar degeneration. Modic changes were more common in DP patients, especially at the prolapsed level. Modic changes were present in 37% of prolapsed levels compared with 9.9% of normal discs (p<.00). The total end-plate damage score had a positive correlation with disc degeneration in both the groups. Further the mean total end-plate damage score at prolapsed level was also significantly higher., Conclusion: The results suggest that patients with disc prolapse, and those with back pain with DDD are clinically and radiologically different groups of patients with varying patterns, severity, and extent of disc degeneration. This is the first study in literature to compare and identify significant differences in these two commonly encountered patient groups. In patients with single-level DP, the majority of the other discs are nondegenerate, the lower lumbar spine is predominantly involved and the end-plate damage is higher. Patients with back pain and DDD have larger number of degenerate discs, early multilevel degeneration, and predominant upper lumbar degeneration. The knowledge that these two groups of patients are different clinically and radiologically is critical for our improved understanding of the disease and for future studies on disc degeneration and disc prolapse., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Study Design: A prospective multimodal study including clinical, radiological, serial postcontrast magnetic resonance imaging, intraoperative findings, and histopathological study., Objective: To document in vivo, the site of anatomical failure in lumbar disc herniation (LDH)., Summary of Background Data: Although in vitro mechanical disruption studies have implicated both the endplate junction (EPJ) and the annulus fibrosus (AF) as the site of failure in LDH, there are no in vivo human studies to document the exact anatomy of failure., Methods: One hundred eighty-one consecutive patients requiring microdiscectomy at a single level formed the study group. The status of the endplate and AF in the operated level (study discs) and the other discs (control) were evaluated by plain radiograph, thin slice computed tomographic scan, plain and contrast magnetic resonance imaging, intraoperative examination, and histopathological analysis., Results: LDH due to EPJ failure (EPJF- type I herniation) was more common (117; 65%) than annulus fibrosis rupture. Herniated discs had a significantly higher incidence of EPJF than control discs (P < 0.0001). The EPJF was evident radiologically as vertebral corner defect in 30 patients, rim avulsion in 46, frank bony avulsions in 24, and avulsion at both upper and lower EP in 4. Thirteen discs with normal EP radiologically had cartilage or bone avulsion intraoperatively. Sixty-four discs (35%) had intact EP of which annular high intensity zone was found in 21 (11%), suggesting a disruption of AF (type II herniation). Postcontrast magnetic resonance image of 20 patients showed dye leak at the EPJ proving EPJF as main cause of LDH., Conclusion: Our study provides the first in vivo evidence that LDH in humans is more commonly the result of EPJF than AF rupture and offers clinical validation of previous in vitro mechanical disruption studies. Future research must focus on the EPJ as a primary area of interest in LDH., Level of Evidence: N/A.

Study Design: Clinical case report and review of the literature., Objective: To highlight the importance of including cerebrospinal fluid leak and pseudomeningocele in the differential diagnosis in a patient presenting with diplopia due to abducens palsy after spine surgery and to highlight the possibility of cure after successful surgical repair of the dural defect., Summary of Background Data: Abducens nerve palsy after spine surgery is extremely rare, with only 3 reported cases in the literature. We report the first case of abducens nerve palsy associated with a clinically evident pseudomeningocele, which was completely cured by successful repair of the dural defect., Methods: A 53-year-old male patient with diabetes presented 6 weeks after lumbar disc surgery with persistent headache, a fluctuant swelling at the operated site, and diplopia secondary to left abducens nerve palsy. Clinical examination revealed a left abducens nerve palsy and magnetic resonance imaging showed a pseudomeningocele due to dural tear at L4-L5. He underwent exploration, and the dural defect was repaired using 6-0 Vicryl and reinforced with a fibrin sealant., Results: After dural closure, pseudomeningocele and headache resolved completely and diplopia improved partially. At 4-week follow-up, there was complete resolution of diplopia. Clinical examination showed full recovery of the lateral rectus function, indicating resolution of the abducens palsy. Magnetic resonance imaging showed complete resolution of pseudomeningocele., Conclusion: Although uncommon, abducens nerve palsy after cerebrospinal fluid leak should be considered in the differential diagnosis of diplopia developing in a patient who has undergone spine surgery. After confirmation of pseudomeningocele radiologically, early surgical intervention with repair of the dural defect can result in complete recovery of the abducens nerve palsy.

Study Design: Vertebral defects were created in a validated 3D finite element model (FEM) to simulate destructive tubercular lesions of increasing severity. Forces in various parts of the spine were then calculated and correlated to deformity progression and growth modulation (GM) changes., Objective: To understand the biomechanical basis of GM, which governs spinal growth and the progression of kyphosis in posttubercular kyphotic (PTK) deformities., Summary of Background Data: Hueter-Volkmann Law (HVL), chondral growth force response curve (CGFRC), and regional growth acceleratory phenomenon have all been proposed to explain the modulation of growth in limbs but have not been tested in vertebral end plates (VEP). We have previously documented various GM changes in posttubercular kyphotic. By simulating the kyphotic collapse in a validated FEM, the mechanical basis of GM can be established., Methods: Sixty-three children with tuberculosis treated conservatively formed the clinical material. The progress of deformity and GM changes in the fusion mass and the kyphotic curve was documented. Defects simulating lesions of four levels of severity (types A, B, C, and D) were created in a validated 3D FEM and subjected to load till restabilization occurred. The stresses at the end plates, discs, facet joints, and the points of contact were calculated., Results: Regional growth acceleratory phenomenon and favorable growth changes were found in type A collapse where the facets were intact. With increasing destruction, the forces in the facet capsules increased beyond 30 MPa predicting facet dislocations in types B, C, and D collapse. As the contact stress on the VEP increased to 16.6 MPa (type B) and 40 MPa (type C), this was associated with growth suppression. Type D collapse involved facet dislocation at multiple levels leading to "buckling collapse". Acceleratory growth was found both in tension and compression phases proving that VEP growth followed principles of CGFRC rather than HVL., Conclusion: This is the first study in the current literature to demonstrate that spinal growth follows CGFRC rather than HVL. This observation opens a potential window of opportunity to treat spinal deformities by mechanical GM.

Study Design: A comprehensive study of 21 lumbar scoliotic discs by in vivo serial post contrast diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), histopathological, and biochemical analysis., Objective: To investigate the in vivo effects of compressive and tensile mechanical stress on the lumbar discs with scoliotic disc as the biologic model., Summary of Background Data: Most studies implicating mechanical stress in degenerative disc disease (DDD) are on animals, in vitro conditions and cadavers. They are also restricted to histopathological or biochemical evaluation without analyzing the endplate (EP) and nucleus pulposus (NP) separately. The few human studies have not analyzed diffusion changes which is the final pathway for DDD. Adolescent scoliotic disc offer a perfect model to study the effects of mechanical stress., Methods: Twenty-one discs from 6 patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis undergoing anterior corrective surgery were assessed before surgery by postcontrast MRI to document the EP diffusion patterns. The same discs harvested during surgery were analyzed histologically and biochemically. The results were correlated to clinical and radiologic parameters., Results: Altered diffusion patterns was seen in all discs with site specific breaks in 2, double peak pattern in 3, high intensity pattern in 14, and frank contrast leak in 2. There was marked decrease in cell density and viability in all discs on both convex and concave sides compared to the control disc (P = 0.001). Neovascularization, calcification, and matrix degeneration were observed to varying extent in different regions of NP and EP. There was a decrease in water content with increasing severity of curves with significant difference between mild and severe curves (NP: P = 0.000, EP: P = 0.002). Lactate was significantly higher in caudal EP (P = 0.035) and discs with coronal migration of more than 15 mm (P = 0.007). Regression analysis showed that truncal decompensation was a main factor for decrease in cell density, matrix degeneration, calcification, and water content., Conclusion: The study documents widespread changes in the EP and NP even in discs with minimal wedging. EP damage and alterations in diffusion were observed earlier than MRI changes and could indicate nutritional factors as the primary mechanism of degeneration induced by mechanical stress. Degeneration was more severe in caudal discs and those with truncal decompensation. Its implications on the timing and choice of surgery in scoliosis are discussed.

Study Design: An in vivo serial magnetic resonance imaging study of diffusion characteristics in human lumbar discs over 24 hours in healthy volunteers and patients with low back pain., Objectives: To document the temporal pattern of diffusion in normal human lumbar discs and to study the influence of the vascularity of bone and the status of endplate on diffusion in the normal and degenerate discs., Summary of Background Data: Diffusion is the only source of nutrition to the discs, but no firm data are available on pattern of diffusion in humans. More data on this important subject are required to improve our understanding of disc degeneration and to probe research possibilities for preventing the same., Methods: The diffusion pattern over 24 hours following gadodiamide injection was studied in 150 discs (96 normal and 54 degenerate). Signal intensity values for three regions of interest in bone (i.e., vertebral body, subchondral bone, and endplate zone) and seven in the disc were calculated, and normal percentiles of diffusion were derived for these regions. Enhancement percentage for each time period, peak enhancement percentage for each region, and the time taken to achieve peak enhancement percentage (Tmax) were used to define and compare diffusion characteristics and plot a time-intensity curve to document the 24-hour temporal pattern. The correlation of blood flow of the bone as measured by peak enhancement percentage of vertebral body, the status of the endplate zone as measured by the peak enhancement percentage, and Tmax of the endplate zone were correlated with the diffusion of the disc.Univariate analysis of variance, multiple comparisons, appropriate tests for significance, and stepwise linear regression analysis were used for analysis of the data using SPSS software., Results: In normal discs, a "diffusion march" from the vertebral body to the center of disc was noted with the SImax being observed at 5 min in the vertebral body and subchondral bone, at 2 hours in the endplate zone, and at 6 hours in the nucleus pulposus. A significant difference in mean peak enhancement percentage was observed between that of the body and the discs in those less than 10 years and those above the age of 20 years (P < 0.001). Alterations in endplate zone produced distinct magnetic resonance imaging signs of disturbance in diffusion, which offered a reliable noninvasive method of identifying endplate cartilage damage. Stepwise linear regression analysis showed that the significant variable influencing diffusion to the center of the nucleus pulposus of the total sample was peak enhancement percentage of endplate zone (R2 = 0.216; P < 0.001), that of degenerate discs was peak enhancement percentage of endplate zone (R2 = 0.322; P < 0.001), and that of normal discs (R2 = 0.324; P < 0.001) was age., Conclusions: Serial postcontrast magnetic resonance imaging studies offer a reliable method of assessing the diffusion of the discs and the functional status of the endplate cartilage. Endplate cartilage damage increases with age and produces considerable changes in diffusion. The present study has described reliable signs by which these damages can be identified in vivo. Aging and degeneration have been shown to be two separate processes by documenting clear-cut differences in diffusion. The present data encourage use of diffusion studies as a noninvasive method to assess the physiologic status of the disc and endplate and to study the effect of drugs, smoking, mechanical loading, exercises, etc. on the physiology of the disc.

Purpose: Erector spinae plane block (ESPB) has gained popularity over recent years and is being increasingly used in spine surgery for pain management. To date, no major neurological complications have been reported. We present here two patients who developed transient postoperative paraplegia and discuss the possible causes of this phenomenon. Methods: Patients, who underwent preoperative bilateral ESPB as an adjunct to general anesthesia for elective lumbar spine surgery at our institution between January 2017 and December 2020, were retrospectively identified. Among them, only patients who developed postoperative motor and sensory deficits were finally included. Results: Overall, two patients [of 316 who underwent ESPB (0.6%)] developed complete motor and sensory deficits in bilateral lower limbs postoperatively. In both patients, the surgery was uncomplicated. Ninety minutes following recovery from general anesthesia, both patients showed gradual neurological recovery in a distal-to-proximal pattern, with complete motor recovery preceding the sensory improvement. Since the surgical procedure was performed at the cauda equine level, transient paraplegia in these patients could only attributed to ESPB. Conclusion: Transient paraplegia following ESPB (due to anterior spread of the local anesthetic agent into the epidural space) has never been reported, and both anesthetists and surgeons must be aware of this possible complication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Aneurysmal bone cysts (ABC) form 1 % of primary bone tumors. Reported incidence rates are no more than 1.4 to 1,00,000. ABC of spine frequently involves posterior elements and commonly affects the lumbar spine (45 %). We present a case of C2 ABC for the challenges it poses due to the rarity of the lesion, tedious to access location, dilemmas relating to the suitable approach for tumor resection and technically demanding stabilization and reconstruction strategy post resection.Methods: Clinical data analysis was performed to discuss a method of novel anterior column reconstruction following resection of a C2 aneurysmal bone cyst in a 8 year old child with anterior and posterior elements being involved.Results: An 8-year-old girl with an aneurysmal bone cyst of the C2 vertebra underwent staged surgery following pre-operative embolisation. First a posterior approach tumor excision with posterior instrumented fusion was performed. Following which, using a modified anterior retropharyngeal approach anterior tumor excision and fibular graft reconstruction between the C1 lateral mass and C2 body was performed. Complete tumor clearance and stable reconstruction was successfully achieved in our patient. Patient showed excellent clinical outcome with radiological fusion.Conclusions: Preoperative embolisation in the treatment of ABC has supplemental advantage by reducing blood loss. Modified anterior retropharyngeal approach allows satisfactory clearance for C1-2 lesion and fibular strut graft between the C1 lateral mass and C2 body can provide a stable graft placement with good chance of fusion. Instability and spinal deformity, whether preexisting or post-excision, should be corrected with reconstruction and stabilization to offer best chance of cure in such cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To document a rare complication of a delayed 'chance fracture pattern'-type injury through the proximal end of a pedicle screw construct in the clinical scenario of skeletal fluorosis.Methods: A 72-year-old man with fluorosis presented following a fall which resulted in a T12-L1 fracture. Investigations revealed an unstable three-column injury, so the patient was treated with surgical stabilisation using pedicle screw fixation from T11 to L2. He presented 1 month following surgery with worsening back pain. Investigations revealed a fracture through T11 in a 'chance fracture pattern' along the pedicle screw tracts at the proximal end of the construct. An extension of fixation was performed proximally to T8 and he made an uneventful recovery showing fusion at 20-month follow-up.Results: Complication of delayed pedicle fractures, in a 'chance fracture pattern' at the ends of a pedicle screw fixation constructs are a rarely reported in the literature. The occurrence of such a complication in a hyperostotic spine associated with fluorosis makes this a unique clinical scenario which is previously unreported to the best of our knowledge.Conclusions: This report highlights a very rare complication of chance fracture pattern injury in the clinical scenario of fluorosis. A hyperostotic stiff spine, poor quality of bone and extension of pedicle screw tracts to anterior cortex during primary surgery may have resulted in the occurrence of this rare complication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To analyse the clinic-radiological factors associated with neurological deficit following lumbar disc herniation.Methods: A prospective, cross-sectional study was performed in 140 cases of micro-discectomy following lumbar disc herniation. Group 1 included 70 consecutive patients with motor deficit and group 2 (controls) included 70 patients with intact neurology. Motor deficit was defined as the occurrence of motor power ≤3/5 in L2-S1 myotomes. Multiple clinical and radiological parameters were studied between the two groups.Results: Patients with diabetes (p 0.004), acute onset of symptoms (p 0.036), L3-4 discs (p 0.001), sequestrated discs (p 0.004), superiorly migrated discs (p 0.012) and central discs (p 0.004), greater antero-posterior disc dimension (p 0.023), primary canal stenosis (p 0.0001); and greater canal compromise (p 0.002) had a significant correlation with the development of neurological deficit. The presence of four or more of these risk factors showed a higher chance of the presence of motor deficit (sensitivity of 74%, specificity of 77%). Age, sex, previous precipitating events, severity of pain, smoking, and number of herniations levels did not affect the occurrence of deficit (p > 0.05 for all). Patients with or without bladder symptoms were similar with respect to all clinico-radiological parameters. However, the time delay since the occurrence of deficit was significantly shorter in patients with bladder involvement (p 0.001).Conclusion: Patients with diabetes, acute presentation, central, sequestrated and superiorly migrated discs, high lumbar disc prolapse, and greater spinal canal compromise are predisposed to the presence of motor deficit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We aimed to formulate a radiological index based on plain radiographs and computer tomography (CT) to reliably detect posterior ligamentous complex (PLC) injury without need for MRI.Methods: Sixty out of 148 consecutive thoracolumbar fractures with doubtful PLC were assessed with MRI, CT and radiographs. PLC injury was assessed with the following radiological parameters: superior-inferior end plate angle (SIEA), vertebral body height (BH), local kyphosis (LK), inter-spinous distance (ISD) and inter-pedicular distance (IPD) and correlated with MRI findings of PLC injury. Statistical analysis was performed to identify the predictive values for the parameters to identify PLC damage.Results: MRI identified PLC injury in 25/60 cases. The ISD and LK were found to be significant predictors of PLC injury. On radiographs the mean LK with PLC damage was 25.86° compared to 21.02° with an intact PLC (p = 0.006). The ISD difference was 6.70 mm in cases with PLC damage compared to 2.86 mm with an intact PLC (p = 0.011). In CT images, the mean LK with PLC damage was 22.96° compared to 18.44° with an intact PLC ( p = 0.019). The ISD difference was 3.10 mm with PLC damage compared to 1.62 mm without PLC damage (p = 0.005).Conclusions: On plain radiographs the presence of LK greater than 20 °(CI 64-95) and ISD difference greater than 2 mm (CI 70-97) can predict PLC injury. These guidelines may be utilised in the emergency room especially when the associated cost, availability and time delay in performing MRI are a concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The lesion in spondylolysis is a nonunion that follows a fatigue fracture of pars interarticularis. Direct repair of the pars defect is a logical alternative to fusion as it helps to preserve the motion segment and prevents abnormal stresses at the adjacent levels. The purpose of the study is to analyze the clinical and radiological results of direct screw osteosynthesis of the pars defect by the Buck's method in patients with symptomatic spondylolysis with or without grade 1 spondylolisthesis. Materials and Methods: Nine patients (six males, three females, mean age 24 years) with symptomatic spondylolysis with or without grade 1 spondylolisthesis and a normal disc in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), who failed conservative treatment, underwent surgery between January 2000 and April 2009. Of them five patients had bilateral lysis at one level, one had bilateral lysis at three levels and two levels each and two had unilateral lysis at one level. Direct pars repair by the Buck's method with internal fixation of the defect using 4.5 mm cortical screws and cancellous bone grafting was done. The mean follow-up period was 45 months. MacNab criteria were used to evaluate the postoperative functional outcome. Healing of the pars defect was assessed by plain radiographs and computed tomography (CT) scan. Results: Spondylolysis was bilateral in seven and unilateral in two patients. Two patients had associated grade 1 spondylolisthesis. The mean operative time was 58 minutes (range 45 - 75 minutes) and blood loss was 98 ml (50 - 140 ml). Although radiological fusion was observed in all patients at a mean follow-up of 45 months (range 9 to 108 months), the functional outcome was excellent in two patients and good in five, with one fair and one poor result. The overall result of the procedure was satisfactory in 78% (7/9) of the patients. The two patients with associated grade 1 spondylolisthesis had fair and poor results. No complications were encountered in the perioperative or postoperative period. Conclusions: In carefully selected patients, direct repair of the pars defect by the Buck's technique of internal fixation and bone grafting was a safe and effective alternative to fusion in younger patients with symptomatic spondylolysis, without associated spondylolisthesis, who failed conservative management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The letter to the editor discusses the mid-term outcome of intervertebral disc degeneration after direct vertebral rotation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. The authors question the conclusions drawn in the original publication, pointing out inconsistencies in the methodology and results. They highlight the importance of restoring thoracic kyphosis to prevent long-term degenerative disc disease in AIS patients. Despite the identified issues, the authors acknowledge the valuable contributions made by the original study. [Extracted from the article]

Patients with congenital stenosis of the spine (CSS) present with clinical symptoms at an early age and fewer degenerative hypertrophic changes than the more common degenerative cohort. Literature is lacking in the true prevalence of CSS affecting the 3 segments of the spine in isolation, as well as in tandem in the Indian subcontinent. Anteroposterior spinal canal diameter in axial plane computed tomography at the midvertebral level was measured in asymptomatic patients with whole-spine computed tomography. Spinal canal stenosis was defined as a diameter of <12 mm for the cervical region, <12 mm for the thoracic region, and <13 mm for the lumbar region. Single-level and multilevel stenosis, as well as tandem and triple-region stenosis, were evaluated. The results show the prevalence of CSS as 16.6%, 11.5%, and 20.1% involving the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine, respectively. Single-level stenosis affected 90.6%, 94%, and 79.8% of the patients with cervical, thoracic, and lumbar CSS, respectively. Tandem stenosis affected 10.4% of the population (n = 104), with cervicolumbar stenosis being the most prevalent (n = 51, 5%). The presence of CSS in any one segment of the spine was significantly associated with the presence of stenosis at one of the other segments (P < 0.05). Triple-region stenosis was seen in 0.3% (n = 3) patients. The prevalence of cervical, thoracic, lumbar and tandem stenosis from our study is established at 16.6%, 11.5%, 20.1%, and 10.4%. Additionally, our study demonstrates the association between stenosis of the different regions of the spine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Context: The true understanding of aging and disc degeneration (DD) is still elusive. MRI has not helped our attempts to understand the health and disease status of the discs as it reflects mainly the end morphologic changes and not the changes at a molecular level. Understanding degeneration at a molecular level through proteomics might allow differentiation from normal aging and also aid in the development of biomarkers for early diagnosis and preventive therapies.Purpose: To utilize proteomics to understand the molecular basis of healthy, aging, and degenerating discs and conclusively differentiate normal aging and degeneration.Study Design: Proteomic analysis of human intervertebral disc samples.Methods: L4-L5 disc samples from three groups were acquired and subjected to proteomic analysis. Samples from individuals aged in the second, third, and fourth decades were used to represent young healthy discs (Group A). Those from MRI normal donors aged in the fifth, sixth, and seventh decades represented normal aging (Group B). Five degenerated discs obtained from patients at surgery represented degeneration (Group C). The entire proteome map and alteration in protein expressions were further analyzed using bioinformatics analysis. This was a self-funded project.Results: There were 84 common proteins. Specific proteins numbered 225 in A, 315 in B, and 283 in C. By gene ontology biological process identification, Group A predominated with extracellular matrix organization, cytoskeletal structural and normal metabolic proteins. Group B differed in having additional basal expression of immune response, complement inhibitors, and senescence proteins. Group C was different, with upregulation of proteins associated with oxidative stress response, positive regulators of apoptosis, innate immune response, complement activation and defense response to gram positive bacteria indicating ongoing inflammaging.Conclusions: Our study documented diverse proteome signatures between the young, aging and degenerating discs. Inflammaging was the main differentiator between normal biological aging and DD.Clinical Significance: Multiple inflammatory molecules unique to DD were identified, allowing the possibility of developing specific biomarkers for early diagnosis and thereby provide evidence-based metrics for preventive measures rather than surgical intervention and also to monitor progress of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]