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BACKGROUND BK virus nephropathy (BKVN) is a major complication in kidney transplant patients. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy against persistent BKVN and to evaluate the association between persistent BKVN and Fc gamma receptor (FcγR) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). METHODS A total of 86 patients out of 279 kidney recipients with BKVN were investigated in a single-center retrospective study. The majority of 86 patients were Hispanic and Asian (69.8% and 17.4%). Patients were treated with adjunctive IVIG or standard therapy (controls). Subgroup analysis was performed between IVIG responders and non-responders. BK virus copy number and serum creatinine (SCr) were measured to evaluate the impact of IVIG. We analyzed the association between the response to IVIG and genotype at FcγR3A (rs396991) and FcγR2A (rs1801274) SNPs. RESULTS Viral load in IVIG non-responders was significantly higher than in responders at the time of diagnosis (219 271.8 vs 29 816.3 copies/mL, P = .015) and after 6 months of IVIG use (12 789.5 vs 1369.5 copies/mL, P

Background Anemia is a very common occurrence in post-renal transplant patients. Post-transplantation anemia (PTA) is associated with significant graft loss or cardiovascular morbidity. The objective of this study is to identify clinical risk factors associated with anemia after kidney transplantation. Methods Our retrospective cohort study included a total of 570 renal transplant recipients. For the definition of anemia, we adopted “the lower limit of normal for Hgb concentration of blood” proposed by Beutler E and Waalen J [14], which has adjustments for age, gender and ethnicity. Post-transplant anemia (PTA) was defined as anemia that arose between 30 and 180 days after transplantation. Based on this definition, of the 570 renal transplant recipients, 344 patients (62.1%) experienced PTA. The patients were divided into anemic and non-anemic groups, and a total of 20 clinical factors were compared between the two groups. Results In the univariate analysis, age, race, multiple transplants, delayed graft function (DGF), and use of tacrolimus, sirolimus, thymoglobulin, ganciclovir, ACE inhibitors, and ARBs were associated with PTA. In the multivariate analysis, age (> 60 years old, OR = 2.62, p = 0.001), race (OR = 2.54, p = 0.001), and use of sirolimus (OR = 2.01, p = 0.019), antiviral agents (OR = 1.96, p = 0.015), thymoglobulin (OR = 1.86, p = 0.011), and DGF (OR = 2.78, p = 0.001) remained significant. Conclusion The current results show that undergoing a transplant at age 60 or older, use of sirolimus, antiviral agents, and thymoglobulin are independent clinical risk factors associated with PTA. In terms of ethnicity, AA, MEA, or PI is higher risk for PTA and Hispanic is significantly lower risk for PTA compared to Caucasians.

Background Hematological abnormalities after transplantation are complications that may arise after renal transplantation, of which thrombocytopenia is associated with increased risk of bleeding and other complications. The development of thrombocytopenia is affected by various clinical conditions, and the stromal-derived factor 1 (SDF1) and platelet factor 4 (PF4) genes are known to be involved in the production or destruction of platelets. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of posttransplant thrombocytopenia and its association with other clinical conditions and genetic polymorphisms of SDF1 and PF4 genes a long time after transplantation. Methods This is a retrospective study that includes a total of 305 kidney transplant (KT) recipients between 2008 and 2012 at St. Vincent Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA. In this study, posttransplant thrombocytopenia was defined as a 30% reduction in platelet count from the baseline in the first week or a decrease of Results In the first week, 65 patients had a 30% reduction in platelet count (21.3%). Gender, simultaneous kidney-pancreas transplantation, induction therapy (IT), and only alleles of rs2297630 of SDF1, among the SDF1 and PF4 genes, showed statistically significant differences. The rs2297630 alleles were consistently significant risk factors (non G vs. G: odds ratio = 0.445; 95% confidence interval, 0.224–0.884; p = .021) in the multiple logistic regression. In the 1-year study, 61 patients (20.0%) had platelet counts of Conclusions In this study, non-G group of rs2297630 in SDF1 significantly increased the risk of post-transplant thrombocytopenia in the first week of kidney transplantation.

The posttransplant development of donor specific antibodies (DSA) initiates the antibody mediated rejection (AMR), which is associated with the increased rate of graft loss. One of the characteristics of AMR is the infiltration of innate immune system including macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils or NK cells. Macrophage inhibitory factor (MIF) and B-cell activating factor (BAFF) are well known cytokines that are associated with the activation of the innate immune system which can damage kidney allograft. In this article, the association of the genetic polymorphisms of MIF and BAFF with the development of DSA including Class I and II in kidney transplant patients is investigated. A total of 231 renal transplant patients between 2008 and 2012 at St. Vincent Medical Center, CA were studied in a retrospective study design. DSA were determined by Luminex technology, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of MIF and BAFF were determined by the real time PCR based on 5′ nuclease allelic discrimination assay. The genetic polymorphisms of MIF rs1007888 (C/T) was associated with increased risk of positive DSA detection (p = 0.04) after transplantation, and consistently significant after 1 year (p = 0.016). Furthermore, the presence of C allele were associated with the increased risk of Class I DSA detection (OR 1.816, CI 1.141–2.889, p = 0.011). Also, genetic polymorphisms of BAFF rs12583006 were associated with the increased risk of Class II DSA detection (p = 0.033). In conclusion, the genetic polymorphisms of MIF and BAFF may increase the risk of posttransplant development of DSA. This result suggests the association between the development of posttransplant DSA and the activation of innate immune system.

BACKGROUND BK virus nephropathy is one of the most common viral infections that affect up to 10% of renal transplant recipients (RTRs), causing allograft dysfunction and graft loss. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) gene polymorphisms have been associated with parvovirus B19, hepatitis C virus, HIV-1/AIDS infection, cytomegalovirus viremia, and disease. IFN-γ is known to have potent inhibitory effects on BK virus gene expression, both at the level of transcription and translation. METHODS It was investigated whether IFN-γ polymorphisms are associated with BKV infection. Genotyping of four single-nucleotide polymorphisms located in the IFN-γ gene were performed on DNA collected from a total of 251 RTRs (71 RTRs with BKV infection and 180 without BKV infection). RESULTS Analysis of the results showed that IFN-γ (rs12369470) CC genotype was significantly associated with susceptibility to BKV infection (OR: 2.9, 95% CI: 1.29-6.44, P=0.007) while the IFN-γ +874 (rs2435061) TT and (rs2406918) CC genotypes appear to be markers for protection against BKV infection (OR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.1-0.83, P=0.01 for rs245061; OR: 0.61, 95% CI: 0.4-0.94, P=0.02 for rs24069718). A haplotype analysis using the combination of rs2435061-rs2406918-rs2870953 showed that the A-G-T haplotype was associated with a significantly reduced risk for BKV infection (OR: 0.43, 95% CI: 0.25-0.73, P=0.001). CONCLUSION Polymorphisms in the IFN-γ gene may confer certain protection or predisposition for BKV infection.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) alleles have been associated with allograft outcomes in kidney transplant recipients; however, these alleles may be in linkage with other genes. Human allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is a cytoplasmic protein and is produced by macrophages. Its synthesis is regulated by several cytokines, including interferon gamma. We investigated whether polymorphisms of gene encoding COX-2 and AIF-1 were associated with allograft outcomes among Hispanic renal transplant recipients (RTRs). A total of 527 de novo RTRs of Hispanic ethnicity were included in this study transplanted at St. Vincent Medical Center (SVMC) during 2000–2009. Patients were genotyped for the following: COX-2 (−1195C > T rs689466, intron 6 rs2066826) and AlF1 (rs2269475). Analysis of the results showed that COX-2–1195 CC genotype (OR = 1.92, CI% = 1.00–3.67, p = 0.04) were more frequent, but COX-2–1195 CT genotype was less frequent in kidney allograft acute rejection in comparison with control group (OR = 0.59, CI% = 0.38–0.91, p = 0.017). The genetic variant TT/CT of the AIF-1 gene was associated with a lower risk of rejection (OR = 0.63, CI% = 0.41–0.98, p = 0.038). No association of COX-2 (rs2066826) was observed with allograft rejection. We are unable to find statistically significant association between COX-2 and AIF-1 gene polymorphisms and allograft survival. The −1195C > T in the COX-2 promoter and AIF-1 gene polymorphisms could be a potential predictor of allograft rejection in our Hispanic kidney transplant recipients.

The association between donor specific antibodies (DSA) and renal transplant rejection has been generally established, but there are cases when a DSA is present without rejection. We examined 73 renal transplant recipients biopsied for transplant dysfunction with DSA test results available: 23 patients diffusely positive for C4d (C4d+), 25 patients focally positive for C4d, and 25 patients negative for C4d (C4d−). We performed C1q and IgG subclass testing in our DSA+ and C4d+ patient group. Graft outcomes were determined for the C4d+ group. All 23 C4d+ patients had IgG DSA with an average of 12,500 MFI (cumulative DSA MFI). The C4d− patients had average DSA less than 500 MFI. Among the patients with C4d+ biopsies, 100% had IgG DSA, 70% had C1q+ DSA, and 83% had complement fixing IgG subclass antibodies. Interestingly, IgG4 was seen in 10 of the 23 recipients’ sera, but always along with complement fixing IgG1, and we have previously seen excellent function in patients when IgG4 DSA exists alone. Cumulative DSA above 10,000 MFI were associated with C4d deposition and complement fixation. There was no significant correlation between graft loss and C1q positivity, and IgG subclass analysis seemed to be a better correlate for complement fixing antibodies in the C4d+ patient group.

Background The dimeric NF-κB transcription factors play critical roles in diverse cellular processes including adaptive and innate immunity, cell differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis. It regulates the expression of numerous genes that play a key role in the inflammatory response during kidney allograft rejection. This study aims to determine the association of NF-κB gene polymorphisms with allograft outcomes in the Hispanic renal transplant recipients. Methods A total of 607 Hispanic renal transplant recipients at St. Vincent Medical Center between 2001 and 2010 were included in this study. The NF-κB genotypes were studied along with clinical data. In the case of NF-κB genotypes, the following single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were included: NF-κB1 (rs3774959, rs3774932, rs3774937, rs230526, rs230519), NF-κB2 (rs1056890, rs7897947, rs12769316) and NF-κB inducing kinase (NIK) (rs9908330, rs7222094). The association of each genotype with renal allograft survival and acute rejection was evaluated. Results NF-κB1 (rs3774937) CC genotype showed protective association with allograft rejection (OR = 0.66, 95% CI = 0.44–0.99, p = 0.04). There was a significant increase in allograft survival time associated with the NF-κB1 (rs3774959) A allele (OR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.60–0.98, p = 0.03) while GG genotype was associated with a higher risk of graft failure (OR = 1.51, 95% CI = 1.02–2.21, p = 0.03). There were no associations between polymorphic markers in NF-κB2 and NIK genes with allograft survival or acute rejection. Among non-genetic factors, we found that the use of tacrolimus, a deceased donor, delayed graft function and acute rejection were associated with allograft failure. Conclusion The result of present study suggests that NF-κB1 gene polymorphisms may determine the incidence of acute rejection or graft survival among Hispanic allograft recipients.

Background. New-onset diabetes after transplantation (NODAT) is one of the major complications after transplantation and is associated with reduced overall patient and graft survival. The objective of this study was to determine the genetic and clinical risk factors for NODAT in Hispanic kidney transplant recipients. Methods. Hispanic kidney allograft recipients without evidence of preexisting diabetes who developed NODAT (n= 133) were studied using Hispanic kidney transplant recipients with no evidence of diabetes as a control group (n= 170). NODAT was defined as fasting glucose levels ≥ 126 mg/dL on two or more occasions or patients taking any insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents 1 month or later after kidney transplantation. Fourteen alleles in nine genes were genotyped and other patients' clinical data with genotype data were analyzed by logistic regression. Results. Among 14 alleles, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4A) AA (rs2144908, odds ratio [OR] =1.96, confidence interval [CI]=1.08―3.50, P=0.010), HNF4A TT (rs1884614, OR=2.44, CI=1.42―4.48, P=0.002), and insulin receptor substrate 1 AA+AG (rs1801278, OR=2.71, CI=1.16-6.89, P=0.021) remained significant after logistic regression. Among the clinical factors, average age (OR=1.01, CI=1.00-1.08, P=0.048), sirolimus (OR=5.36, CI=3.02―10.4, P=0.001), deceased donor (OR=1.96, CI=1.16-2.94, P=0.015), and acute rejection (OR=2.92, CI= 1.31-5.77, P=0.009) remained significant after logistic regression. Conclusion. This study indicates that polymorphism of two alleles of HNF-4A gene (rs2144908 and rs1884614) and insulin receptor substrate 1 (rs1801278) are significantly associated with NODAT in kidney transplant patients with Hispanic ethnicity. In the case of clinical factors, older age (>50 year), deceased donor type, acute rejection, and sirolimus use are associated with NODAT in Hispanic kidney transplant recipients.

The aim of the study is to characterize the pharmacokinetics and the gastrointestinal side effect profiles of enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium (EC-MPS) in de novo kidney transplant patients of Hispanic ethnicity.The pharmacokinetic study of EC-MPS was conducted in 11 de novo kidney transplant patients of Hispanic ethnicity. Eight blood samples were obtained after EC-MPS was given at the steady state. Blood concentrations of mycophenolic acid (MPA) and its glucuronide metabolite (MPAG) were measured.The mean age (± standard deviation) was 39.4 (± 12.3) years. The mean daily dose of EC-MPS at the time of the pharmacokinetic study was 1408 ± 108 mg. For MPA and MPAG, the time to peak concentration was 2.5 ± 1.3 hours and 4.6 ± 3.1 hours, respectively; the peak concentration (Cmax) was 19.3 ± 17.2 mg/L and 109.4 ± 49.2 mg/L; and the area under the curve from 6 to 12 hours (AUC6-12) was 32.2 ± 19.3 mg·hr/L and 373.7 ± 235.8 mg·hr/L, respectively, which represents 41.3% and 43.0% of AUC0-12. The AUC0-12 for MPA measured 77.8 ± 53.1 mg·hr/L and for MPAG 869.2 ± 388.8 mg·hr/L. Seven patients (64%) exhibited a second peak at approximately 8.3 hours after the dose at a mean concentration (± standard deviation) of 10.3 ± 7.6 mg/L. The Cmax or AUC of MPA does not correlate with overall Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale scores or subscale scores, but the Cmax of MPAG correlates with indigestion subscale (P = 0.022), diarrhea (P = 0.032), and overall scores (P = 0.028). The AUC of MPAG also correlates with acid reflux (P = 0.024) and indigestion (P = 0.032).The pharmacokinetics of EC-MPS has a high variability in de novo kidney transplant patients of the Hispanic ethnicity, which was similar to other ethnic groups. The MPA exposure expressed by the AUC appears to be higher in Hispanic patients than those reported in other ethnic groups, which may be the result of various factors such as difference of the uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase enzyme genotypes, but gastrointestinal side effects were acceptable and the Cmax or AUC of MPAG showed correlations with gastrointestinal symptoms.

The aim of this study was to determine the association between hypertensive nephropathy and gene polymorphisms of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in a self-reported Hispanic patient group. A total of 155 Hispanic living kidney donors as controls and a total of 86 Hispanic kidney transplant patients, whose renal failure was attributed to hypertensive nephropathy after ruling out diabetes mellitus or other causes, were genotyped for four different single nucleotide polymorphisms of VEGF: −2578 C>A (rs699947), −1154 G>A (rs1570360), −460 C>T (rs833061), and +936 C>T (rs3025039). The homozygous mutant type (AA) of VEGF −1154 G>A (rs1570360) was found with significantly higher frequency in the hypertensive nephropathy patients than in controls. On the other hand, homozygous wild type (GG) was found less frequently in the hypertensive nephropathy patient group than in the control group. Linkage disequilibrium (LD) analyses revealed a high degree of LD among VEGF −2578 C>A (rs699947), VEGF −1154 G>A (rs1570360), and VEGF −460 C>T (rs833061). The haplotype analysis revealed that two haplotypes, CGTC and CATC (in the order of VEGF −2578 C>A (rs699947), −1154 G>A (1570360), −460 C>T (rs833061), and +936 C>T (3025039)), were significantly associated with hypertensive nephropathy in Hispanic patients. Hence, the −1154 G>A polymorphism (rs1570360) and two haplotypes (CGTC and CATC) of VEGF appear to be associated with hypertensive nephropathy in Hispanic patients who developed end-stage renal disease requiring kidney transplant.

To determine the relationship between CYP3A4*1B polymorphism and cyclosporine pharmacokinetic parameters among healthy volunteers, the oral cyclosporine pharmacokinetic study was performed in 14 healthy subjects. Blood cyclosporine concentrations were measured by a high performance liquid chromatography. Concentration-time data were analyzed by a non-compartmental method using WinNonLin, and the blood samples were genotyped for the CYP3A4*1B 5'-promotor region using the polymerase chain reaction and a restriction digest. Each cyclosporine pharmacokinetic parameter was compared using the one-way ANOVA test according to his or her CYP3A4*1B genotype. There were four (4) homozygous A/A (wild-type), four (4) homozygous G/G (variant) and six (6) heterozygous A/G genotypes for CYP3A4*1B in these 14 healthy volunteers. The mean AUC/D (ng.hr/mL/mg) of CsA were 21.5 +/- 6.0 (A/A), 11.7 +/- 3.2 (G/G) and 19.2 +/- 2.3 (A/G), P = 0.0103 and the mean CL/F (L/hr) were 49.4 +/- 13.9 (A/A), 83.5 +/- 16.0 (G/G), and 52.5 +/- 5.6 (A/G), P = 0.0024. All other parameters were not significantly different among the three genotypes.

To determine the relationship between C3435T mutation in exon 26 of the human multidrug resistant 1 (MDR1) gene and cyclosporine pharmacokinetic parameters among healthy volunteers, the oral cyclosporine pharmacokinetic study was performed for 14 healthy subjects. Blood cyclosporine concentrations were measured by HPLC. Concentration-time data were analyzed by a noncompartmental method using WinNonLin, and the blood samples were genotyped for the C3435T polymorphism of MDR1 gene using the PCR and a restriction digest. Each cyclosporine pharmacokinetic parameter was compared using the Mann-Whitney U test according to his or her P-gp genotype. There were seven (7) homozygous C/C, six (6) C/T, and one (1) homozygous T/T genotypes in these 14 healthy volunteers. According to their genotypes, mean t(max) 1.6 +/- 0.3 hours, mean C(max) 1337 +/- 329 ng/mL, mean Cl/F 66.5 +/- 18.3 L/h, and mean AUC 5642 +/- 1577 ng.h/mL in C/C group and mean t(max) 2.0 +/- 0.6 hours, mean C(max) 1540 +/- 721 ng/mL, mean Cl/F 55.2 +/- 18.9 L/h, and mean AUC 6902 +/- 1405 ng.h/mL in C/T+T/T group. Although Cmax and AUC in C/T and T/T group were 15% and 22% larger than those in C/C group, none of these parameter comparisons was statistically significant. There were no statistical differences in cyclosporine pharmacokinetics among different MDR1 genotypes in these 14 healthy subjects.

BK virus-associated nephropathy (BKVN) can cause clinically significant viral infection in renal transplant recipients, leading to allograft dysfunction and loss. The usual management of BKVN involves the reduction of immunosuppression and the addition of leflunomide, quinolones, and cidofovir, but the rate of graft loss remains high. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of treatment with intravenous human immunoglobulin (IVIG) on the outcome of BKVN in renal transplant recipients. Upon diagnosis of BKVN, patients remained on anti-polyomavirus treatment, consisting of the reduction of immunosuppression and the use of leflunomide therapy. Treatment with IVIG was given only to patients who did not respond to 8 weeks of the adjustment of immunosuppression and leflunomide. All 30 patients had persistent BKV viremia and BKVN with their mean BK viral loads higher than the baseline (range, 15,000-2 million copies/mL). Mean peak BK load was 205,314 copies/mL compared with 697 copies/mL after 1 year of follow-up. Twenty-seven patients (90%) had a positive response in clearing viremia. The actuarial patient and graft survival rates after 12 months were 100% and 96.7%, respectively. IVIG administration appeared to be safe and effective in treating BKV viremia and BKVN and preventing graft loss in patients who had inadequate response to immunosuppression reduction and leflunomide therapy.

Pharmacokinetic studies of intravenous and oral cyclosporine (cyclosporin) were performed in 22 healthy African American (n = 11) and white (n = 11) volunteers. Blood cyclosporine concentrations were measured by high performance liquid chromatography. Concentration versus time data were analyzed by noncompartmental models, and statistical analyses were performed by ANOVA. The clearance of intravenous and oral cyclosporine was 4.3 +/- 0.9 mL/min/kg and 13.5 +/- 4.5 mL/min/kg, respectively, in African Americans and 3.7 +/- 0.5 mL/min/kg and 9.6 mL/min/kg, respectively, in the white volunteers (P = .0001). There was a significant race and gender interaction (P = .038). Bioavailability was lower in African Americans (32.8 +/- 6.6%) compared with white volunteers (39.3 +/- 7.1%; P = .049), with a significant race and gender interaction (P = .048). The dose-adjusted area under the curve (AUC) of intravenous and oral cyclosporine was 54.3 +/- 10.6 ng x hr/mL per milligram and 18.1 +/- 4.1 ng x hr/mL per milligram, respectively, in African Americans and 61.9 +/- 6.8 ng x hr/mL per milligram and 24.2 +/- 4.6 ng x hr/mL per milligram, respectively, in white volunteers (P = .023). These findings suggest that disposition of cyclosporine is dependent both on race and on gender.

Dextromethorphan (DM) is metabolized in the body to dextrophan (DT) and 3-methoxymorphinan (3-MM) by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 and 3A4, respectively, and cyclosporine (CsA) is a known substrate of CYP3A4. We attempted to determine if the urine metabolic ratio of DM:3-MM at various time intervals during 24 hours is predictive of CsA clearance in 11 healthy volunteers. Each subject took DM 30 mg orally, and serial urine samples were collected at 0-4, 4, and 4-24, and 0-24 hours. Subjects then were randomly assigned to receive either oral microemulsion CsA 5 mg/kg or intravenous CsA 1.5 mg/kg in a crossover fashion in a two-sequence pharmacokinetic study with a wash-out period of at least 7 days. A total of 17 blood samples were collected from each subject in the CsA pharmacokinetic study over 24 hours. Urinary DM, DT, and 3-MM were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector, and blood CsA concentrations were analyzed by HPLC with ultraviolet detection. All subjects were extensive metabolizers of CYP2D6 as determined by metabolic ratios of DM:DT (mean ± SD 0.0255 ± 0.048). There was no correlation between CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 (p=0.38). The metabolic ratios of DM:3-MM in any urine samples during the 24-hour collection period did not predict CsA pharmacokinetics, although the 0-24 hour sample had an unexpected positive correlation with CsA clearance (r 2 = 0.38, p

Background Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common cause of viral infection, causing morbidity and mortality among renal transplant recipients (RTRs). Cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) have been shown to possess antiviral properties, and their polymorphisms are associated with disease outcome. The aim was to investigate the association of gene polymorphisms in IL-10, IFN-γ, and TNF-α with CMV infection in RTRs. Methods IL-10 −1082 A>G, −592 A>C; TNF-α −308 A>G; and IFN-γ +874 A>T gene polymorphisms were studied in 247 Hispanic RTRs (52 RTRs with CMV infection and 195 without CMV infection), using DNA-based polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific primers and restriction. Results Median time to CMV infection was 8 months, with a mean peak CMV viral load of 25,314 copies/mL. Patients with donor-positive/recipient-negative (D+/R−) serostatus were found to be associated with a high risk of CMV infection (P = 0.001). A statistically significant correlation was found between IFN-γ +874 A>T polymorphism and the risk of CMV infection. The IFN-γ +874 AA genotype was associated with a 3.4-fold increased risk for the CMV-infected group compared to the non-CMV group (odds ratio = 3.4, 95% confidence interval = 1.24–9.34, P = 0.01). The association was independently significant in multiple logistic regression (P = 0.01), along with serologic status D+/R−, acute rejection, and anti-thymocyte globulin induction. The allelic as well as genotypic frequencies of TNF-α and IL-10 did not significantly differ between the CMV-infection group and the control group. Individuals with IFN-γ +874 AT and AA genotypes exhibited higher risk of allograft loss. Conclusion This study suggested that RTRs with variant homozygous IFN-γ AA genotype were at risk of CMV infection, whereas the high producer IFN-γ +874 TT genotype appears to be associated with lower risk of CMV infection.

Mycophenolic acid (MPA), a widely used immunosuppressant, has a complex metabolism that involves a number of enzymes. Some of its metabolites are thought to be the cause of gastrointestinal (GI) side effects. In this study, we investigated whether polymorphisms of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT1) A8, 1A9, and hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF1α) genes or pharmacokinetic parameters of mycophenolic acid (MPA) were associated with the severity of GI symptoms in patients receiving MPA therapy. A total of 109 kidney transplant patients taking mycophenolic acid (MPA) derivatives were genotyped for UGT1A8, 1A9 and HNF1α genes. Among these, a total of 15 patients were participants in the pharmacokinetic study. Severity of GI symptoms was assessed using a validated Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale (GSRS). The overall and subscale GSRS scores were measured at 1 week (baseline), 2 weeks, 3 months and 6 months post-transplantation. In the case of the pharmacokinetic study, EC-MPS was administered and a total of nine blood samples were obtained at − 1, 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 h. Genotypes of UGT1A8 were significantly associated with the overall GSRS scores at week 1 (p = 0.02) and week 2 (p = 0.036). Subscales were only statistically significant for constipation at week 1 (p = 0.002) and indigestion at week 2 (p = 0.02), while UGT1A9 was only significant for the constipation at week 1 (p = 0.04). HNF1α genotypes were significantly different at week 1 in the overall GSRS (p = 0.004), and for abdominal pain (p = 0.04), acid reflux (p = 0.036) and constipation subscales (p = 0.04). In addition, abdominal pain was statistically significantly different at 3 months and 6 months after transplantation (p = 0.03 and 0.02, respectively). In the case of the pharmacokinetic study, we have found some correlations between MPAC0 and constipation (p = 0.02) where MPAAUC was correlated with acid reflux (p = 0.02) and constipation (p = 0.012), MPAGCL/F was correlated to acid reflux, indigestion, constipation and the sum of the GSRS scores (p = 0.037, p = 0.032, p = 0.033 and p = 0.04, respectively). Multinomial regression analysis for MPAGCL/F showed a statistical significance for the subscale indigestion and the sum of the GSRS (p = 0.033 and p = 0.037, respectively). Our data suggests that among patients receiving MPA the UGT1A9 alleles might play a role in determining the severity of early GI side effects, while the HNF1α allele appears to be associated with a later effect as well as early side effects. Our data also showed that some kinetic parameters might predict MPA side effects.

Granzyme B (GZMB) and perforin 1 gene (PRF1) are key effector molecules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, in causing acute and chronic solid organ transplant rejection. In this study, we analyzed the impact of GZMB and PRF1 polymorphism on kidney allograft outcomes. In all, 527 de novo kidney Hispanic allograft recipients were genotyped for PRF1 (rs10999426, rs35947132) and GZMB (rs8192917, rs7144366). PRF1 (rs10999426, rs35947132) G alleles and GG genotypes were negatively associated with allograft rejection, demonstrating protection against allograft rejection (OR = 0.61, p = 0.005 for rs1099946; OR = 0.4, p = 0.01 for rs 35947132). On the other hand, the GA heterozygosity of PRF1 was found marginally associated with the rejection group (OR = 1.53, p = 0.05 for rs10999426; OR = 2.24, p = 0.07 for rs35947132). There was a significant increase in allograft survival in time period studied for the PRF1 (rs10999426) GG genotype, while the GA heterozygosity was associated with graft failure. We found no association for polymorphic markers in GZMB gene with allograft rejection. Survival was significantly improved for patients who were homozygous TT for the GZMB (rs8192917) (TT vs. CC/TT, p = 0.041). The result suggests that PRF1 and GZMB gene polymorphisms may determine the incidence of acute rejection or graft survival among Hispanic allograft recipients.

Polymorphism of genes encoding components of the vitamin D pathway including vitamin D receptor (VDR) and vitamin D binding protein (VDBP), have been widely explored due to the complex role played by vitamin D in renal transplant outcomes. In this study, we investigated whether polymorphisms of genes encoding VDR and VDBP were associated with allograft survival or acute rejection (AR) among a Hispanic kidney transplant population. A total of 502 Hispanic renal allograft recipients at the St. Vincent Medical Center between 2001 and 2010 were genotyped for four different single nucleotide polymorphisms of VDR: FokI C>T (rs2228570), BsmI G>A (rs1544410), ApaI T>G (rs7975232), and TaqI T>C (rs731236). We also performed genotyping for one common polymorphism in the VDBP gene (rs4588). Survival was significantly improved for patients who were homozygous GG for the rs4588 G>T allele in the VDBP gene (GG vs. GT + TT, OR = 0.63, p = 0.02) while GT genotype was associated with a higher risk of graft loss (GT vs. GG + TT, OR = 1.67, p = 0.01). We found no association for polymorphic markers in VDR with allograft survival and AR. The frequency of the haplotype GTCG (in the order of VDR FokI C>T, BsmI G>A, ApaI T>G, and TaqI T>C), was significantly different in the patients with graft rejection compared to the control (p = 0.007) while ACCA haplotype was found to be associated with graft loss (p = 0.02). Hence, the VDBP G>T polymorphism (rs4588) and two haplotypes (GTCG and ACCA) of VDR appear to be associated with renal allograft outcomes among Hispanic allograft recipients.

Background 10–30% of dialysis population awaiting renal transplantation is sensitized. Mycophenolic acid (MPA) has been shown to reduce panel reactive antibody (PRA) formation in kidney transplant recipients. Our aim was to investigate whether MPA could effectively reduce anti-HLA antibody levels and allow successful transplantation. Methods A total of 40 highly sensitized patients were treated orally with MPA. All patients had T-cell PRA values greater than 30% (73% of patients were ≥ 75%). The PRAs, T-cell/B-cell flow cytometry crossmatch (FCXM) mean channel shift (MCS), patient/graft survival, acute rejection, and serum creatinine (SCr) were recorded. Results All 40 patients showed a decrease in PRA levels. Eighteen of the 40 patients (40%) received a transplant. All four living donor recipients converted to a negative crossmatch. There was a significant decrease in FCXM MCS in all 18 transplanted patients. The mean SCr at 24 months was 1.00 ± 0.25 mg/dL. Five patients (28%) experienced acute rejection. The overall one year actuarial patient and graft survival were 94% and 88%, respectively. Conclusions These findings suggest that MPA therapy is effective in reducing PRAs and increases the likelihood of successful transplantation in sensitized recipients in a potentially simpler and more cost effective manner than the current regimens employed.

Transcription factors of the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) family regulate both immune activation and insulin production. Calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) target NFAT activation. Hence, CNIs not only prevent organ transplant rejection but also contribute to the development of new-onset diabetes after transplantation (NODAT). Given individual variation in the susceptibility to NODAT, we hypothesized that polymorphisms in the cytoplasmic NFAT (NFATc)4 gene, which is expressed in pancreatic islets, may be associated with NODAT. Haplotype-tagging single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the NFATc4 gene were genotyped in Hispanic renal transplant patients. Cumulative incidences of NODAT were compared between recipients of different NFATc4 genotypes and haplotypes. The Cox proportional hazard model was used to examine risks for NODAT. Nongenetic and genetic characteristics were included in the multivariate risk model. The SNP (rs10141896) T allele was associated with a lower cumulative incidence of NODAT (P=0.02). This is a tagging SNP for one of the five dominant NFATc4 haplotypes, T-T-T-T-G, and CNI-treated recipients with this haplotype had a reduced adjusted risk for NODAT (hazard ratio: 0.45; 95% confidence interval: 0.19-1.01). Conversely, patients homozygous for the C-C-C-G-G haplotype were at an increased risk (hazard ratio: 2.13; 95% confidence interval: 1.01-4.46) for NODAT in subanalysis. Of the nongenetic factors, use of tacrolimus, sirolimus, and older age were associated with increased risk for NODAT. Polymorphisms in the NFATc4 gene may confer certain protection or predisposition for NODAT.

To determine the relationship between CYP3A5 polymorphism and cyclosporine pharmacokinetic parameters among healthy volunteers, an oral cyclosporine (CsA) pharmacokinetic study was performed in 16 healthy subjects. Blood CsA concentrations were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Concentration-versus-time data were analyzed by a noncompartmental method using WinNonLin, and the blood samples were genotyped for the CYP3A5 using the polymerase chain reaction and pyrosequencing. CsA pharmacokinetic parameters were dichotomized and compared using the 1-way ANOVA test according to the CYP3A5*3C genotype. There were 6 homozygous A/A (wild type), 6 homozygous G/G (variant), and 4 heterozygous A/G genotypes for CYP3A5*3 C in these 16 healthy volunteers. All whites were G/G group, and all African Americans except 1 were either A/A or A/G group. The mean AUC (ng x h/mL) of CsA for the 3 genotype groups were 4962 +/- 1074 (A/A), 6677 +/- 1153 (G/G), and 5416 +/- 1817 (A/G), (A/A versus G/G, P = 0.03), and the mean CL/F (mL/min/kg) were 15.6 +/- 3.1 (A/A), 12.0 +/- 2.3 (G/G), and 14.7 +/- 5.9 (A/G), (A/A versus G/G, P = 0.04). None of the other parameters were significantly different among the 3 genotypes. In conclusion, the CYP3A5*3C polymorphism appears to affect AUC and CL/F of oral CsA significantly in healthy subjects, which may partly explain some of the differences of pharmacokinetics in CsA between African Americans and whites.

The neural network (NN) is a technique using an artificial intelligent concept in predicting outcomes by using various input variables. Tacrolimus pharmacokinetics has wide inter- and intra-subject variability and it is often difficult to predict its blood concentrations by dose alone. The objectives of this study are to select the clinically significant variables and to predict the blood concentration of tacrolimus in liver transplant patients by NN combined with genetic algorithm (GA). A total of thirty-two adult liver transplant patients from the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics were selected and the patients' data were retrospectively collected. These patient were randomly assigned into two groups: either the training group (n = 10), or testing group (n = 22). A back propagation (BP) NN was developed which contained two hidden layers. A dynamic BP NN based on the time series concept was trained by using the current and previous data sets to predict the trough levels of tacrolimus. The mean of the NN prediction for tacrolimus blood levels was not significantly different from the observed value by a paired t-test comparison (12.05 ± 2.67 ng/ml vs. 12.14 ± 2.64 ng/ml, p = 0.80). The average difference of the testing sets between the observed and predicted levels was 1.74 ng/ml with a range from 0.08 to 5.26 ng/ml which is clinically acceptable range. Thirty-seven out of 44 data sets (84%) in the testing group were within 3.0 ng/ml of the observed values. This study demonstrated that tacrolimus blood concentrations are precisely predictable in liver transplant patients using patients variables by NN.

A study was conducted to examine the effect of grapefruit juice on the disposition of quinidine sulfate and changes of QT intervals after oral administration to twelve healthy male volunteers. Participants received two oral doses of quinidine sulfate tablets (400 mg) with 240 mL of water or grapefruit juice, each separated by a 1-week washout period. Plasma samples for analysis of quinidine and its major metabolite, 3-hydroxyquinidine, were collected for a 24-hour period and analyzed by a high-performance liquid chromatography method. For pharmacodynamic data, the electrocardiograms (ECGs) were performed for 12 hours, and the recordings were marked for ECG interval at all blood collection time periods. There was no significant difference in pharmacokinetic parameters of quinidine when administered with grapefruit juice or water, except for time to maximum concentration (tmax), which was 1.6 hours after administration with water and 3.3 hours after administration with grapefruit juice. Administration with grapefruit juice also resulted in a 33% decrease in the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of 3-hydroxyquinidine compared with water, but did not increase the AUC of quinidine or change the ratio of AUC of 3-hydroxyquinidine to the AUC of quinidine. Pharmacodynamic parameters, including changes in the rate-corrected QT (QTc) interval, closely paralleled the pharmacokinetic data, in that administration with grapefruit juice led to delayed maximal effect on QTc and reduction in maximal effect. Administration with grapefruit juice therefore delays the absorption of quinidine and inhibits the metabolism of quinidine to 3-hydroxyquinidine.

The efficacy of an oil-in-water emulsion of a traditional Kenyan medicine, Compound R, on thermal burn wounds in fuzzy rats is reported. The burn wounds were inflicted on the depilated skin of rats with a 2 cm diameter aluminum template heated at 65 degrees C. Mean +/- SD days to healing (complete closure) were 9.9 +/- 2.2 (range 7 to 14 days) and 13.3 +/- 2.4 (range 10 to 16 days) for the treated and control (untreated) wounds, respectively (paired Student's t test, t value -5.667, p = 0.0003). Preliminary microbiologic results showed no activity of Compound R against some of the commonly encountered pathogens in burn wounds. Compound R appears to decrease the days to burn wound healing in fuzzy rats. This study provides preliminary data for further investigations of Compound R in managing burn wounds.