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Studies have established that grown children’s problems affect parental well-being, but a dearth of research has addressed daily interactions and biological systems that may underlie these associations. This study examined whether parents have different types of daily interactions with adult children who have problems and whether those interactions are associated with variations in parents’ diurnal cortisol rhythms. Middle-aged parents (n = 197) reported their interactions with adult children for seven consecutive days and provided saliva, analyzed for cortisol, three times a day (wake, 30 minutes after wake, bedtime) for four of those days. Parents were more likely to report negative encounters but not less likely to report positive interactions or contact with adult children who suffered from problems. Interactions with adult children who had physical-emotional problems had more immediate same day associations with cortisol whereas interactions with adult children who had lifestyle-behavioral problems had more delayed, or next day associations with cortisol. Daily interactions and their associations with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis may be important mechanisms by which adult children with problems negatively affect parental well-being.

Although evidence suggests that attachment anxiety may increase risk for health problems, the mechanisms underlying these effects are not well understood. In the current study, married couples ( N = 85) provided saliva samples over 3 days and blood samples on two occasions. Participants with higher attachment anxiety produced more cortisol and had fewer numbers of CD3+ T cells, CD45+ T cells, CD3+CD4+ helper T cells, and CD3+CD8+ cytotoxic T cells than participants with lower attachment anxiety. Higher cortisol levels were also related to fewer numbers of CD3+, CD45+, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ cells, which is consistent with research showing that cortisol alters the cellular immune response. These data suggest that attachment anxiety may have physiological costs, and they provide a glimpse into the pathways through which social relationships affect health. The current study also extends attachment theory in an important new direction by demonstrating the utility of a psychoneuroimmunological approach to the study of attachment anxiety, stress, and health.

We examined the interplay between husbands’ and wives’ positive and negative nonsexual interpersonal behaviors, frequency of sexual intercourse, sexual satisfaction, and feelings of marital satisfaction. To do this, we conducted an in-depth face-to-face interview and completed a series of telephone diaries with 105 couples during their second, third, and fourteenth years of marriage. Consistent with the argument that women’s sexual response is tied to intimacy (Basson, 2000), multilevel analyses revealed that husbands’ positive interpersonal behaviors directed toward their wives—but not wives’ positivity nor spouses’ negative behaviors (regardless of gender)— predicted the frequency with which couples engaged in intercourse. The frequency of sexual intercourse and interpersonal negativity predicted both husbands’ and wives’ sexual satisfaction ; wives’ positive behaviors were also tied to husbands’ sexual satisfaction. When spouses’ interpersonal behaviors, frequency of sexual intercourse, and sexual satisfaction were considered in tandem, all but the frequency of sexual intercourse were associated with marital satisfaction. When it comes to feelings of marital satisfaction, therefore, a satisfying sex life and a warm interpersonal climate appear to matter more than does a greater frequency of sexual intercourse. Collectively, these findings shed much-needed light on the interplay between the nonsexual interpersonal climate of marriage and spouses’ sexual relationships.

The neuropeptide vasopressin has traditionally been associated with vasoconstriction and water reabsorption by the kidneys. However, data from experimental animal studies also implicate vasopressin in social bonding processes. Preliminary work suggests that vasopressin also plays a role in social behaviors in humans. The goal of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate associations among plasma vasopressin and self-reported interpersonal functioning in a sample of married couples. During a 24-hour admission to a hospital-based research unit, 37 couples completed measures of interpersonal functioning and provided blood samples for neuropeptide analyses. Results showed that vasopressin was associated with markers of interpersonal functioning, but not with general psychological distress. Specifically, greater plasma vasopressin levels were related to a larger social network, fewer negative marital interactions, less attachment avoidance, more attachment security, and marginally greater spousal social support. These results indicate that vasopressin is likely implicated in different relationship maintenance processes in humans.

Participant sex and a theorized correlate of biological sex, relational interdependence, were tested as relative predictors of the extent to which daters 1) missed and 2) used emotional support to cope when geographically separated from their dating partners. One hundred twenty-four daters completed multiple measures of missing and coping during their colleges' winter breaks. Results from regression analyses indicated that levels of missing and seeking emotional support differed as a function of biological sex. Further, relational interdependence was reliably associated with missing and seeking emotional support in theoretically consistent ways. Mediation analyses highlighted the importance of considering relational interdependence or other individual differences that covary with biological sex when studying close relationship phenomena.

Marital stress has been associated with immune dysregulation, including increased production of interleukin-6 (IL-6). Attachment style, one’s expectations about the availability and responsiveness of others in intimate relationships, appears to influence physiological stress reactivity and thus could influence inflammatory responses to marital conflict. Thirty-five couples were invited for two 24-hour admissions to a hospital research unit. The first visit included a structured social support interaction, while the second visit comprised the discussion of a marital disagreement. A mixed effect within-subject repeated measure model indicated that attachment avoidance significantly influenced IL-6 production during the conflict visit but not during the social support visit. Individuals with higher attachment avoidance had on average an 11% increase in total IL-6 production during the conflict visit as compared to the social support visit, while individuals with lower attachment avoidance had, on average, a 6% decrease in IL-6 production during the conflict visit as compared to the social support visit. Furthermore, greater attachment avoidance was associated with a higher frequency of negative behaviors and a lower frequency of positive behaviors during the marital interaction, providing a mechanism by which attachment avoidance may influence inflammatory responses to marital conflict. In sum, these results suggest that attachment avoidance modulates marital behavior and stress-induced immune dysregulation.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of social support role (i.e., recipient versus provider) and experimentally manipulated closeness on men's and women's cortisol responses during an acute stress paradigm. METHODS: We manipulated psychological closeness (high versus low) between 50 same-sex stranger pairs and subsequently randomly assigned individuals to either prepare a speech (i.e., support recipient) or provide support to the speech presenter (i.e., support provider). RESULTS: When receiving support, cortisol responses of men in the high closeness condition increased over time relative to a) men in the low closeness condition and b) women in the high closeness condition. Cortisol responses of female support recipients did not differ as a function of condition. For support providers, whereas both men's and women's cortisol declined throughout the procedure, the decline for men was steeper than the decline for women. CONCLUSIONS: With few exceptions, psychological closeness, sex, and social support role interacted in theoretically consistent ways and each significantly contributed to the pattern of cortisol responses observed in men and women during a standardized acute stress paradigm. This work expands the growing literature on potential mechanisms underlying the social support-health link. Further, the employed methodology highlights the utility of borrowing established paradigms from the close relationships literature to help illuminate specific interpersonal characteristics that might affect social support dynamics in naturally existing relationships and at the same time control for extraneous variables.

Objective: To examine whether greater cognitive engagement during a marital conflict discussion, as evidenced by use of words that suggest thinking and meaning-making, results in attenuated proinflammatory cytokine increases to stress and wounding. Design: Husbands and wives (N 84 individuals) were observed during two separate 24-hr visits: each visit included a wounding procedure, which was followed by a nonconflictive marital discussion (first visit) and a conflictive marital discussion (second visit). Main Outcome Measures: Serum proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-). Results: Individuals who used more cognitive processing words during the conflict discussion (but not the nonconflictive discussion) showed smaller increases in serum IL-6 and TNF- over 24 hours; they also had lower levels of both cytokines 24 hours after baseline controlling for demographics, hostility, depressed mood, positive and negative interactions, and marital quality. Effects of word use were not mediated by ruminative thoughts after conflict. Although both men and women benefited from their own cognitive engagement, only husbands’ IL-6 patterns were affected by spouses’ engagement. Conclusion: In accord with research demonstrating the value of cognitive processing in emotional disclosure, this research suggests that productive communication patterns may help mitigate the adverse effects of relationship conflict on inflammatory dysregulation.

We investigated linkages between spousal support satisfaction and affective, cortisol, and blood pressure responses to conflict in two samples, 85 newlyweds and 31 older couples, married an average of 42 years. Couples were admitted to a hospital research unit and provided self-reports regarding the support received from their spouses. After a baseline period, couples engaged in a 30-min conflict discussion during which time blood was drawn for cortisol assessment. After the conflict, newlyweds' blood pressure was measured. Among newlywed wives, greater spousal support satisfaction was associated with smaller changes in negative affect and cortisol responses to conflict. Notably, newlywed wives and husbands demonstrated lower blood pressure after conflict when spousal support satisfaction was higher. In contrast, older husbands (but not wives) exhibited greater cortisol responses when spousal support satisfaction was lower. These relationships provide a window on mechanisms linking marriage and health for men and women across the life span.

We assessed the impact of thinking of a current romantic partner on acute blood glucose responses and positive affect over a short period of time. Participants in romantic relationships were randomly assigned to reflect on their partner, an opposite-sex friend, or their morning routine. Blood glucose levels were assessed prior to reflection, as well as at 10 and 25 min postreflection. Results revealed that individuals in the routine and friend conditions exhibited a decline in glucose over time, whereas individuals in the partner condition did not exhibit this decline (rather, a slight increase) in glucose over time. Reported positive affect following reflection was positively associated with increases in glucose, but only for individuals who reflected on their partner, suggesting this physiological response reflects eustress. These findings add to the literature on eustress in relationships and have implications for relationship processes.

We examined how daters' levels of relationship dependence interact with men's and women's degree of accommodation during a likelihood of marriage discussion to predict cortisol levels at the conclusion of the discussion. Upon arriving at the laboratory, couple members were separated and asked to graph their perceived likelihood of one day marrying each other. Couples were reunited and instructed to create a joint graph depicting their agreed-upon chance of marriage. For the majority of couples, negotiating their likelihood of marriage required one or both partners to accommodate each other's presumed likelihood of marriage. Multilevel analyses revealed a significant Dependence × Accommodation × Sex interaction. For women who increased their likelihood of marriage, feelings of dependence predicted heightened levels of cortisol relative to baseline; we suggest such a response is indicative of eustress. Among men, those who accommodated by decreasing their likelihood of marriage experienced significantly lower levels of cortisol to the extent that they were less dependent on their partners. Discussion focuses on why men and women show different physiological reactions in response to seemingly favorable outcomes from a relationship discussion.

Animal studies have implicated oxytocin and vasopressin in social bonding, physiological stress responses, and wound healing. In humans, endogenous oxytocin and vasopressin levels covary with perceptions of relationship quality, marital behaviors, and physiological stress responses. To investigate relationships among marital behavior, oxytocin, vasopressin, and wound healing, and to determine the characteristics of individuals with the highest neuropeptide levels, 37 couples were admitted for a 24-h visit in a hospital research unit. After small blister wounds were created on their forearm, couples participated in a structured social support interaction task. Blister sites were monitored daily following discharge to assess wound repair speed. Blood samples were collected for oxytocin, vasopressin, and cytokine analyses. Higher oxytocin levels were associated with more positive communication behaviors during the structured interaction task. Furthermore, individuals in the upper oxytocin quartile healed blister wounds faster than participants in lower oxytocin quartiles. Higher vasopressin levels were related to fewer negative communication behaviors and greater tumor necrosis factor-alpha production. Moreover, women in the upper vasopressin quartile healed the experimental wounds faster than the remainder of the sample. These data confirm and extend prior evidence implicating oxytocin and vasopressin in couples' positive and negative communication behaviors, and also provide further evidence of their role in an important health outcome, wound healing.

We examined 31 older couples’ wife demand/husband withdraw communication patterns and cortisol responses to marital conflict. Regression analyses indicated that wife demand/husband withdraw sequences during conflict related to cortisol responses only for wives. Based on a mixed model that accounted for the interdependence of spouses’ perceptions of communication patterns and outcomes, older spouses who reported greater wife demand/husband withdraw patterns in their marriage had greater cortisol responses during a conflict discussion; actual demand-withdraw did not relate to cortisol responses in this model. Findings suggest that perceived communication patterns contribute to neuroendocrine responses to marital conflict, and implications for marriage and health research with older couples are discussed.

A growing body of research linking psychological and behavioral factors to the incidence and progression of cancer suggests that psychosocial factors may have an impact on some types of cancer [1–6]. In this paper, we suggest that it is through the impact these behavioral and psychological factors have on the cellular immune response, including natural killer (NK) cell function, that they may ultimately affect the occurrence and progression of certain tumors. Our discussion of this link begins with a brief overview of the evidence that psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) research with healthy individuals may be relevant to cancer. Next, to link extant PNI research findings with tumorigenesis, we draw upon two important PNI findings relating psychological distress to two important aspects of carcinogenesis: (i) poorer repair of damaged cellular DNA and (ii) modulation of apoptosis. Finally, we focus on the implications of intervention research in cancer patients for cancer progression and treatment. Before reviewing the evidence regarding stress-related immunological changes, it should be noted that one recurrent concern in the literature is the question of the significance of the immune system for cancer. Cancer is comprised of a heterogeneous group of diseases with multiple etiologies [1], and immunological involvement varies across different cancers. Those cancers that are induced by chemical carcinogens (e.g. lung cancer) may be less influenced by psychological, behavioral and immunological factors than cancers that are associated with a virus, such as Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV), which are immunogenic. Suppression of cellular immunity is associated with a higher incidence of certain types of tumors, particularly EBV-associated lymphoproliferative diseases in organ transplant patients, and Kaposi’s sarcoma and EBVassociated B-cell lymphoma in AIDS patients [7]. Additionally, some researchers have questioned whether stress-related immune changes are of either the type or the magnitude to influence tumor growth and metastases [3, 8]. While such issues are beyond the scope of this paper, compelling evidence exists for the role of cells, such as NK cells, in resisting the progression and metastatic spread of tumors once they have developed [7]. Stress and immune dysregulation

Context A growing epidemiological literature has suggested that marital discord is a risk factor for morbidity and mortality. In addition, depression and stress are associated with enhanced production of proinflammatory cytokines that influence a spectrum of conditions associated with aging. Objective To assess how hostile marital behaviors modulate wound healing, as well as local and systemic proinflammatory cytokine production. Design and Setting Couples were admitted twice to a hospital research unit for 24 hours in a crossover trial. Wound healing was assessed daily following research unit discharge. Participants Volunteer sample of 42 healthy married couples, aged 22 to 77 years (mean [SD], 37.04 [13.05]), married a mean (SD) of 12.55 (11.01) years. Interventions During the first research unit admission, couples had a structured social support interaction, and during the second admission, they discussed a marital disagreement. Main Outcome Measures Couples’ interpersonal behavior, wound healing, and local and systemic changes in proinflammatory cytokine production were assessed during each research unit admission. Results Couples’ blister wounds healed more slowly and local cytokine production (IL-6, tumor necrosis factor α, and IL-1β) was lower at wound sites following marital conflicts than after social support interactions. Couples who demonstrated consistently higher levels of hostile behaviors across both their interactions healed at 60% of the rate of low-hostile couples. High-hostile couples also produced relatively larger increases in plasma IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor α values the morning after a conflict than after a social support interaction compared with low-hostile couples. Conclusions These data provide further mechanistic evidence of the sensitivity of wound healing to everyday stressors. Moreover, more frequent and amplified increases in proinflammatory cytokine levels could accelerate a range of age-related diseases. Thus, these data also provide a window on the pathways through which hostile or abrasive relationships affect physiological functioning and health.