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In 235 ce, at the beginning of Late Antiquity, the Roman army was not all that different from the army of 14 ce at the end of the reign of Augustus. By the seventh century, and in the aftermath of the Arab invasion of the Near East, the Roman army had been transformed, with significant differences with regard to its organization, size, tactics, strategy, and operations. What had been a heavily armed force, which sought to engage its foes head-on and whose primary strength lay in its infantry, had become a force that often sought to avoid pitched battle unless left with no alternative, and whose strength lay in its cavalry. Keywords: Late Antiquity; military history; Roman history

This article focuses on the democracy and legitimacy debates in Zimbabwe after the ouster of Robert Mugabe from power by his erstwhile ally, Emmerson Mnangagwa, in November 2017. President Mnangagwa popularized the terms “Second Republic” and “New Dispensation” to show that his regime differed from Mugabe’s in terms of governance style. The position of this article is that Mnangagwa’s regime could not abandon the system established under the reign of Mugabe. Instead, it argues that the Second Republic reflects continuities of the Mugabe era being transposed into a quasi-military edifice whose commandist approaches denigrate cries for democracy and transparency. This qualitative research draws on data from interviews with political elites in the opposition and ruling parties as well as secondary sources. Este artigo centra-se nos debates sobre democracia e legitimidade no Zimbábue após a destituição de Robert Mugabe do poder pelo seu antigo aliado, Emmerson Mnangagwa, em novembro de 2017. O Presidente Mnangagwa popularizou os termos “Segunda República” e “Nova Dispensação” para mostrar que o seu regime era diferente do de Mugabe em termos de estilo de governação. A posição deste artigo é que o regime de Mnangagwa não podia abandonar o sistema estabelecido sob o reinado de Mugabe. Em vez disso, argumenta que a Segunda República reflete a continuidade da era Mugabe transposta para um edifício quase militar cujas abordagens “comandantes” denigrem os apelos à democracia e à transparência. Esta pesquisa qualitativa baseia-se em dados de entrevistas com elites políticas dos partidos na oposição e no poder, assim como em fontes secundárias.

The Arab Caliphate was famous for its highly developed book culture and the fact that it turned the Arabic language into the international language of communication, science and art throughout the Arab-Muslim East. During the reign of the Abbasid dynasty, the Arab-Muslim civilization is experiencing the peak of its heyday and power. Under the Abbasids, Baghdad became not only the political, but also the cultural capital of the Caliphate. The famous House of Wisdom opens in Baghdad, where a large-scale translation activity has been carried out for centuries. The Abbasids achieved amazing success because they were able to absorb the rich cultural traditions of the peoples they conquered. At the same time, they pursued their own political goals - the strengthening and development of the Arab Caliphate. The Abbasids were not pioneers in translation, they skillfully used and developed the pre-Islamic developments of the Iranians in this area. It is important to study the reasons why the Arab Caliphate at one time reached historical heights. This is necessary in order for the lessons of the past to serve the good of the present.

Sefkhet-abwy was the alternate name of goddess Seshat. This name means “seven-horned”. This seven-pointed emblem which was appeared on Seshat’s head in most of her scenes, was the origin of the name for Seshat. Sefkhet-abwy first appeared in the reign of king Tuthmosis III (dynasty XVIII) and seemed to be more than a version of Seshat. She was the goddess of writing and temple libraries, and was known as a scribe and record keeper in ancient Egypt. This research aims to spot light on Sefkhet-abwy, her role in the temples and her relationship with the other deities.

During Charles vii’s reign the number of political specula tended to decrease; many authors however continued to offer to the king a mirror in which he could see what action he had to take in such troubled times. Writings produced by Jean Juvénal des Ursins on different occasions convey a double image of kingship. On the one hand, an idealised kingship that carried out the « poesté modérée » (moderate power) advocated by many clerical reformers ; on the other hand, a darker picture, one that reflected a hesitant, careless and passive man who was not really king. This dark side of the mirror aimed to urge the king to do his duty according to the old Carolingian tradition, but without undermining the majesty of the monarch. Période marquée par un certain ralentissement de la production spéculaire, le règne de Charles vii a néanmoins été riche d’une réflexion politique destinée à tendre au prince le miroir de ce qu’il avait à faire en des temps troublés. Les textes très circonstanciels produits par Jean Juvénal des Ursins reflètent une image dédoublée de la royauté : idéalisée et accomplissant la « poesté modérée » chère à maints réformateurs ecclésiastiques ; noircie et peignant un monarque hésitant, négligent et amorphe qui ne correspond pas forcément à la vérité du personnage. Cette face sombre du miroir vise à admonester le roi selon la vieille tradition qui remonte aux temps carolingiens et à rendre le monarque conscient de ses devoirs, sans aucunement attenter à la majesté royale.

The article examines how the image of the “Bright Hall” ( Mingtang 明堂) was used in the ideological policy of Wu Zetian 武則天 (624–705). The Empress Wu Zetian was the first and only woman in the history of China who received the male title of em peror (Huangdi 皇帝) and founded a new state – Great Zhou (Da Zhou 大 周; 690–705). Traditionally, the history of the "Bright Hall" dates back to the Archaic times. The Ming[1] tang was one of the most important symbols of the Empire and also a political, administrative and religious centre. During the period under review, the Mingtang performed functions of its archaic prototype, which, most likely, should have put the Empress on a par with the semi-legendary rulers from Antiquity. Besides, The Empress was a patron of the Buddhist teachings. This has found its reflection in the type of official ceremonies held there. The “Bright Hall” became the place for holding Buddhist religious events. The “Heavenly Hall” (Tiantang 天堂), which became the seat of the majestic statue of Buddha, was also included in the complex. During the reign of Wu Zetian, the “Bright Hall” had to be built twice after the first Mingtang (constructed in 689) was destroyed by fire. The Empress ordered the complex to be re-built as soon as possible. This fact shows how important was considered the "Bright Hall" for the purpose of modelling the image of an ideal ruler. While observing the events, which took place in Mingtang, one can notice how diverse was the religious policy of Wu Zetian. It is also evident that the Empress tried to make Buddhist ceremonies a part of the state rituals. There is also no doubt that the purpose of holding both traditional and Buddhist ceremonies in the “Bright Hall” was to confirm the legitimacy of Wu Zetian as an Emperor.

Мақолада кавийлар тарихи, атаманинг моҳияти ёритилади. Аҳамонийлар даврида Бақтрияда Кавий унвони қўлланилмаган, империянинг барча ҳудудида бўлгани сингари бу ерда ҳам сатраплик жорий этилган ва икки юз йил давом этган Аҳамонийлар империяси даврида Кавийлик бошқаруви билан бирга , Кавийлик ибораси ҳам унутилган. Аҳамонийлар ҳукмронлигидан кейинги даврларда, хусусан, Буюк Александр, Салавкийлар, Юнон-Бақтрия, Кушонлар салтанати даврида зарб қилинган тангаларда кавий титули қўлланилмаган.

The issues of sexuality have been very contentious in Africa more so after the legalization of same-sex marriages by the U.S. Supreme Court in June 2015 under the President Obama reign. Africans have resented the way sexuality is understood and practiced in the west and has termed it un-African. Some scholars and indeed African leaders have argued that the attitude towards sexuality is a modern practice which is being introduced and even forced to Africa by modernity and influenced greatly by the western worldview. In a modern setting, different sexual orientation has been accepted as a lifestyle and has been institutionalized. Although African does not refute the fact that there were and indeed still are people with different sexual orientation, they do not find it right to institutionalize it since according to African culture, this is an abnormality that needs to be corrected, sympathized with and tolerated. To that end, African peoples assisted those with a different sexual orientation to live normal lives as much as possible. At the same time, the community was kind and tolerant and never banished or mistreated them based on their sexual orientation. This paper will attempt to show the attitude taken by the African people, the process of assisting those with different sexual orientation and how they were incorporated into the society. The paper will draw valuable lessons to be learned by modernity and which will correspond to African Christianity in accordance with the teaching of Jesus Christ

This paper aims to describe the worth noting that the Samanids had prominent civil and political roles. During their reign, writing appeared in the Persian language and the Arabic language. The Samanid era witnessed an industrial renaissance manifested in ceramics, paper, carpets, and textiles. From a political point of view, the Samanids defended the eastern border region and extended Islamic influence to the countries of the Turks. They never departed from the subordination of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. We conducted a literature study to discuss the development of the Samanid dynasty, starting from its power, administration, and distinction in science and the race that developed in this Sunni dynasty. He also endeavoured to bring scholars to the presence of his kingdom and honoured them, benefited and rewarded them. During the years of his rule, which exceeded thirty years, this prince was just, benevolent, and wise. The cities of his state flourished, namely: Nishapur, Merv, Balkh, Bukhara, Samarkand, and others. But after the death of Prince Ismail al-Samani, a conflict erupted between members of the Samanid house in greed for power. The influence of politicians increased, and the weakness of the state began to appear and gradually increase

This article aims to reveal the economic, political and social conditions of the Bunga Bali Kingdom during the reign of King Baolong Kaay in 1840-1875, as well as to revealing his role in political diplomacy in the Lisbon Treaty which certainly had shown existence of the Bali Bunga Kingdom. This study focuses on the locus of the territorial area of the Bunga Bali Kingdom which is centered at Alor Besar. This study uses a historical approach by emphasizing historical facts. Data were obtained from literature or document studies, observations, field studies, and oral traditions. According to this study, there is an economic dependence of the community on the agricultural, livestock and fishery sectors, as well as the political situation. The Bunga Bali Kingdom has 10 Adang villages, three Islamic villages, and seven Pura villages. This study also reveals the social relations of local communities that did not recognize the division of social classes. On the other hand, the emergence of King Baololong as a mediator in the Lisbon treaty in Sago (Solor) was an important turning point because it resulted in an agreement on the territorial division and recognition for the Portuguese and the Dutch. The territories of Kolana, Batulolong, Kui, and Mademang were given to the Dutch, while the island of Atauro was given to the Portuguese. Meanwhile, based in the participation in the Lisbon, it was a medium of achievement and pride for the community as well as to strengthen the ties of brotherhood and cooperation between Galiyau Watang Lema and Solor Watang Lema.

The Portuguese-Brazilian playwright Antonio Jose da Silva, better known by his nickname, the Jew (o Judeu), took to the stage in Lisbon eight comic plays, classified as jocose-serious operas. In them, he dialogues in a parodic way, sometimes with Greek mythology, as, for example, in Amphitrion or Jupiter and Alcmene, The Charms of Medea and Labyrinth of Crete; sometimes with canonical narratives from Western Literature, as one reads in El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha. Victim of the Portuguese Inquisition in the 18th century, the Jew, through symbologies and metaphors, recorded in his texts the excesses of monarchic and ecclesiastical power, during the reign of the Tribunal of the Holy Office.

The death of Kazimir IV Yahailavich in 1492 led to the break of the personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. These two states had got separate monarchs, who became the sons of Kazimir – Jan Olbracht and Alexander. The period of 1492–1501, the Alexander’s reign in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was a serious test for the independence of this state. The transition from a personal to the more formal dynastical union had been thrown the Grand Duchy before a hard dilemma. On the one hand it wanted to keep the alliance with Poland that already had a long historical tradition, was supported by a large body of agreements and provided its benefits. On the other hand the Grand Duchy sought to defend its sovereign rights that the Poland had not recognized always. There are a number of facts that could proof the perception by Poland and Jan Olbracht of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Alexander as subordinated powers. For instance, Jan Olbracht named himself as a Supreme Duke of Lithuania. He used to conclude international agreements in the name of Aleksandr. The King of Poland tried to appoint the Catholic bishops in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In his tern Alexander sometimes emphatically referred to him as his elder brother in official documents. He also used to mint coins with the coat of arms of not only the Grand Duchy of Lithuania but also the Kingdom of Poland. Specific features at that time was that they were strongly conditioned by the family ties of two monarchs. All of Kazimir’s sons, including Jan Olbracht and Alexander sought to maintain family and dynastic unity, to support each other. It came in full force in the international relations. For example two or even three of the Yahajlavichy brothers could enter into an agreement with foreign states. In general, we can say that some signs of dependence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on Kingdom of Poland, which still be traced, belonged mainly to the external, symbolic attributes of statehood. They hardly hurt the fundamental principles of sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The more acute problem was the union between the two states. The conditions to elect Alexander as a King of Poland was a new bilateral agreement. The Piotrkau-Mielnik Union of 1501 became such an agreement. In actual fact, it covered a fusion of two states into the one country, one king, one soim (parliament) and so on. But this plan had never become truth. The ratification of the union was postponed for a long time in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and in 1505 it was denied any approves at all. As a result, the states turned back to the personal union, to that type of relations exciting before 1492. For the Grand Duchy of Lithuania it meant to keep on the sovereign state status.

The article describes the development of geodetic surveying and production of geodetic instruments in what is now Czech Republic. The beginnings of development can be found in the 12th–13th centuries during the colonization of the territory and the consolidation of state administration. Significant development peaks occurred in the 14th century during the reign of the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV and then at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries during the reign of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. The new direction is related to the development of industry at the end of the 19th century. At that time, several dozen companies in fine mechanics and optics were operating in Prague. The company J. & J. Frič was a world leader in the use of a glass divided circle in 1864. The production of astronomical and geodetic instruments in Czechoslovakia was successful until the end of the 1960s.

Talking about classical Islamic education basically cannot be separated from the historical background of the birth and development of Islamic education itself. This is because Islamic education which is now developing is the result of the metamorphosis of previous education. When Islamic education during the time of the Prophet and Khulafa al-Rasyidin emphasized more on the cultivation of faith, sharia, and morals as the basis for fostering the people, classical Islamic education reached its peak during the reign of the Abbasid's which was marked by an openness to foreign cultures and thoughts. Therefore, during the Abbasid era, the scientific tradition developed rapidly and gave birth to many Muslim intellectuals, both concerned with philosophy, religious knowledge (tafsir, fiqh, language), and the realm of education. This period by historians called the golden period (The Golden Age), in which, philosophy, religion, and other sciences, especially education developed rapidly with its unique models and characteristics that distinguish it from previous models and characteristics of education.

The Kingdom of Morocco has been democratizing steadily since the reign of King Al-Hassan II which started in 1961, and its democracy appears to be advancing, flourishing, and stable. Morocco didn't encounter any extremist or progressive change in 2011 and it doesn't appear to be pursuing the direction of the Arabic Spring. Nor did it appear to be following the regular strides of the progress worldview (advancement, forward leap, and union) laid out by political researchers who handled democratization. Morocco isn't inflexible and has, in this way, to remain with the current the state of affairs; regardless of whether its majority rules system is very recognizable. One of the notable qualities of Moroccan majority rule government is that it contrasts from other vote based system in the Arab, African or underdeveloped nations. Accordingly, it very well may be viewed as a third method of democratization, frequently alluded to as the Moroccan superiority, which is formed by numerous elements that incorporate the part of the Monarch.

The article examines the practice of entering into dynastic marriages as part of the policy that was held in relation to vassal kings during the reign of the emperor Augustus (30 BC - AD 14). The author introduces the term Augustus project, bearing in mind the package of measures, aimed at creating a system of vassal kingdoms on the outskirts of the Roman Empire. According to the author, dynastic marriages as an effective instrument of real policy should have cemented the building blocks of the system. In the main part of the article the author analyses ten well-known dynastic marriages, related to the reign of Augustus. As a result of the research undertaken, the author concludes that Augustus, of course, sought to control the behavior of the kings-collaborators. Sometimes things got out of hand, and then the emperor should have intervened to resolve the resulting conflict of interests. The author asks: what did Augustus demand of vassal rulers? The answer is: loyalty and efficiency in the administration of the territories entrusted to them, which meant not only the timely dispatch to Rome of established monetary sums (tributes, taxes and other payments), but also to protect the local population from external enemies, as well as political stability and the rule of law. If it was all there and there was no danger, real or potential, for the peace and stability of the empire, Augustus overlooked extravagant matrimonial combinations, polygamy, conflicts with children and other excesses in the family life of dependent kings. But when it came to questioning loyalty and efficiency, Augustus was unmerciful and merciless in punishing the guilty. Immediate successors to Augustus rejected the Augustus project and gradually eliminated most vassal kingdoms, turning them into provinces under the control of the governors.

This article focuses on the history of a series of paintings by Alexey Bogolyubov which was devoted to Peter the Great’s naval campaigns and created between 1860 and 1877 at the commission of Alexander II. Bogolyubov’s series of naval battle scenes has not been studied individually before.Dispersed across various public and private collections, the paintings have lost their role as a pictorial ensemble. Besides, the fate of three of the eight paintings remains unknown, and they can only be judged by indirect sources: archival and literary sources, copies, studies, and preparatory graphic works. Collected and systematised in this article, these materials make it possible to present the development of the series and Bogolyubov’s pictorial language over a decade and a half at the peak of his artistic career. An analysis of the pictorial features of this cycle of paintings and some other works reveals a change in the artistic techniques during the creation of the series. Also, the author identifies works of Bogolyubov’s predecessors on similar subjects and reveals features of their stylistic similarities and differences from those of Bogolyubov’s.The author traces the connection between Bogolyubov’s choice of subjects in the paintings and the state of naval history, more particularly, their connection with the works of Feodosy Veselago. In addition, the author reveals a case of change in the original idea of the composition of The Battle of Gangut and its division into three paintings consistently reflecting the course of the battle. Additionally, the article compares the routes of hydrographic expeditions and travels as part of the entourages of Tsesarevich Nicholas Alexandrovich and Tsesarevich Alexander Alexandrovich and places related to events of Peter the Great’s reign. Thus, the research demonstrates Bogolyubov’s search for a maximum accumulation of historical material and documentary depiction of events., Статья посвящена истории создания серии картин на темы из русской военно-морской истории времен Петра I, написанных А. П. Боголюбовым в 1860–1877 гг. по заказу императора Александра II. Серия батальных марин Боголюбова впервые стала темой отдельного исследования.Рассредоточенные по различным коллекциям, государственным и частным, эти картины потеряли свое ансамблевое значение. Кроме того, судьба трех из восьми картин остается неизвестной, и судить о них можно лишь по косвенным данным: архивным и литературным источникам, копиям и подготовительным живописным и графическим работам. Собранные воедино и систематизированные, в данной статье эти материалы дали возможность представить последовательное развитие серии и живописного языка Боголюбова на протяжении полутора десятилетий, в период наибольшего подъема деятельности художника. Анализ живописных особенностей этого цикла работ и некоторых других произведений выявил изменение художественных приемов в ходе выполнения заказа. Обозначены работы предшественников на близкие сюжеты, выявлены черты их стилистического сходства и различия с картинами Боголюбова.Прослежена связь выбора сюжетов картин с состоянием военно-морской истории, в частности с трудами Ф. Ф. Веселаго. Кроме того, выявлен случай изменения первоначального замысла художника — разделение композиции «Гангутское сражение» на три последовательно отображающих события картины. Были сопоставлены также маршруты гидрографических экспедиций и путешествий в составе свиты цесаревичей Николая Александровича и Александра Александровича и места событий Петровского царствования. Таким образом подчеркивается стремление Боголюбова к максимальному овладению историческим материалом и документальному изображению событий.

In the reign of Felipe II there were a lot of impostors, people who pretended to be others to thrive or commit whatsoever crimes. Through the relations of causes of faith of the Inquisition of Toledo we have identified several Biscayns in the lands of that archbishopric, a name given to those Basques and Navarrese in the Crown of Castile. Besides, the aura of purity of blood and universal hidalguia that were upon them were used by a Toledan Jewish-converted lineage, the San Pedro, to pass themselves off as natives of northern lands. Microhistory allows us, to be able to glimpse the consideration of this group in the heart of the Spanish Empire, their enrichment strategies or their survival.

The closing years of the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) saw a hardening of attitudes among many of the New English in Ireland towards the Irish and Old English communities there. Historians have concentrated on a number of works which exemplify this attitude, notably Edmund Spenser’s A View of the Present State of Ireland. This article focuses on an earlier proponent of this outlook, a wandering lawyer, Andrew Trollope. In the 1580s, Trollope composed two extensive treatises on Ireland which contain some of the most vituperative attacks written by a Tudor commentator on the Irish, their character, religion and society. Often commented upon, though never examined in detail, this article provides the first in-depth assessment of Trollope’s writings.

In an interview Samuel Beckett dismisses man as a ‘non-knower’ and a ‘non-canner’, a being that has lost its reign of cognitive agency. By so doing, Beckett not only defies the Heideggerian anthrop...

Two recent documentaries promote a “Black Pharaohs” theme in which Kushite rulers overthrew the superior Egyptians and ruled Egypt (Twenty-Fifth Dynasty), but the Egyptians later erased their reign from history. This narrative undergirds The Rise of the Black Pharaohs produced by National Geographic and “Lost Kingdom of the Black Pharaohs” by the Science Channel. This article argues that these documentaries employ the use of presentism—the imposition of current perspectives and attitudes to depict and interpret past events. The two documentaries highlight fascinating archaeological finds in the Nile valley while also resurrecting now-discredited views on race and Egyptian–Kushite interactions arising in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The earliest Egyptologists (e.g., Petrie, Smith, Reisner) advanced the theory that dynastic Egypt emerged from the migration of a white race into the Nile valley, bringing in the elements of civilization superior to that of the indigenous blacks. While these documentaries condemn Reisner’s racist views on Kush, they largely accept this theory on Egypt’s origins and transfer this thinking onto the ancient Egyptians. These documentaries ignore the archaeological evidence showing that Egypt and Kush have shared origins and that ancient Egyptian civilization arose from a Pastoral Neolithic cattle-based culture encompassing Northern Sudan and much of ancient Northeast Africa. Craniometric studies and non-metrical studies of cranial and dental traits demonstrate a close relationship between ancient Upper Egyptian and Lower Nubian populations. They also demonstrate population continuity in Egypt from predynastic phases into the dynastic era. Presentism in the documentaries uses current racial constructs to interpret Egyptian–Kushite interactions. For example, the oppressive relationship between the colonizer and colonized that characterized European colonialism was assumed to apply to ancient Egypt during its colonization of Kush. This review article highlights archaeological findings that challenge these views of Egyptian–Kushite relationships. Examples of Kushite influences on Egyptian cosmology are presented to demonstrate millennia of cultural exchange between the two. The ancient Egyptians did not think of “race,” as presented in these documentaries. Pharaohs from earlier dynasties shared phenotypic features with Kushites, considered “Black” by current criteria.

The article is devoted to the community self-government in prerevolutionary Russia, its theoretical reasoning and its understanding Russian scientists. The types and forms of self-government are studied. The social and state theories of self-government are considered, the main statements of their supporters are highlighted. Historically, the first form of self — government is considered-the veche assembly, characteristic of the time when selfgovernment had a wide range of powers. Centralization of power and weakening of self-government, inherent in the period of the Moscow Principality. The article considers the reform of self-government carried out by Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV), the class-representative nature of self-government during his reign; the administrative-territorial division of Peter I and the system of magistrates; the system of class-based local self-government headed by the nobility under Catherine II; the reform of local self-government of Alexander I that affected the state peasants; the abolition of serfdom in 1861.

espanolResumen Sobre la base ofrecida por los tratados de literatura notarial de la epoca, la finalidad del presente estudio sera proporcionar el analisis de una tipologia documental notarial, la carta de alhorria, durante la primera mitad del siglo XVI, etapa de reinado de Carlos I. De esta forma, el analisis diplomatico acompanara a la revision historica de los antecedentes legales de este modelo y la comparativa con lo que sobre el mismo aportan los diversos formularios y tratados de la epoca. El corpus documental -del que se han entresacado los modelos analizados diplomaticamente- corresponde a la seccion de protocolos del Archivo Historico Provincial de Malaga, ciudad incorporada a la corona castellana en 1487, cuyos escribanos publicos se plegaron desde los inicios a la practica notarial consolidada desde el siglo XIII en el solar hispanico. EnglishAbstract Based on treatises of notarial literature from that time, this research’s purpose is to analyze a type of notarial document, manumission document, during the first half of the XVIth century, ages of Carlos I’s reign. Diplomatic analysis will join the historical review of legal records of this model and the comparative between what it contributes and the different forms and treaties. The documentary corpus -from wich the analysed documents have been picked out- belongs to the protocols section from the Archivo Historico Provincial de Malaga, city added to the Castile’s Crown in 1487 and which public notaries folded from the beginning to the consolidated notarial practice since XIIIth century in the Hispanic lot.

The paper describes the state and local parliamentary activity of Marcjan Ścibor Chelmski (d. 1641), one of the most interesting parliamentarians in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of the 17th century. The text is based on archival research including the Parliament manuscript diaries, private correspondence describing the debates; published sources: instructions, parliamentary resolutions, memoirs; and studies of the history of parliamentarism, on top of the functioning of the political elite and the circulation of information. M.S. Chelmski came from a family with a strong tradition of public service settled in the Krakow province. He began his career as a parliamentarian by being elected to the Sejm in 1613, and later sat in the Parliaments of: 1616, 1618, 1619, 1620, 1621, 1625, 1626/I, 1626/II, 1629/I, 1629/II, 1631, 1632 (convocation and election), 1633 (coronation), 1634, 1635 (I), 1637/I, 1637/II and 1638. He was one of the MPs who usually had a strong presence in the Chamber of Deputies. During the debates he addressed the issues of noble freedom in the spirit hostile to absolutum dominium, economic issues (e.g., financing the army and taxes), procedural issues (e.g., the mode of debate), and religious freedom (e.g., Catholic-Protestant-Orthodox relations). The collected source material confirms Chelmski’s great public activity in Lesser Poland and the evolution of his political stance at the Sejm from an oppositionist during the reign of Sigismund III Vasa to a moderate supporter of the royal court. Sources indicate that Chelmski had a reputation as an esteemed legal expert. He held the dignity of Marshal of the Crown Tribunal. For over 30 years he was one of the most active participants of the local parliament life in the Krakow province. The evolution of Chelmski’s political stance during the reign of Wladyslaw IV Vasa resulted in his nomination for a prestigious office of the Chamberlain of Krakow.

Conventional typologies of lordship and its relationship with royal power in the territories of the English crown emphasize the precocious distinctiveness of royal power as against noble lordship, with the latter consequentially bound by an essentially restrictive territorialized model. Drawing particularly on the example of the kingship/lordship of the Isle of Man, this article considers the manifestations of sub-kingship from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries as a way of understanding the complexity of manifestations of sovereignty in these territories. It assesses the use of royal titles and associated ceremonial and issues such as forms of dating. Also considered are some of the practical manifestations of “sovereign” power, seen in rights associated with justice, taxation, and relations between princes, and in the capacity to exclude the intervention of others in these spheres. From the discussion emerges an understanding of royal power as more variable in its footprint and shared in many spaces by men conventionally seen as part of an undifferentiated aristocracy. The reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII have usually been seen as the final point at which centralization through the power and authority of the English monarch obliterated any remaining echoes of sub-kingship in the North Atlantic archipelago, ending once and for all the possibility of a shared space between kingship and lordship. In considering the historiography of this moment, and evidence for continuity through Henry VIII's reign, the article raises questions about lordship and its political and cultural boundaries in the late medieval and early modern periods.

The COVID-19 pandemic has spread its terror globally for over a year now. There is no continent that has been spared by this scourge. And perhaps a few small countries with no reported cases. Regardless, it is an irrefutable fact that this novel coronavirus pandemic has shaken the pillars of human civilization. For those unaware or living under a rock since the past year or so, the disease is caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus. The first cases were reported to the World Health Organisation as a cluster of pneumonia from unknown causes from Wuhan, China on the 31st December, 2019. And, thus began its reign of terror, spreading across the world, like hot cakes sold out in a carnival. That being said, humanity has suffered a lot at the hands of the pandemic. Innumerous deaths, sufferings, unending lockdowns and curfews, social problems, people losing their livelihoods and the list goes on. It is, thus, easy to give in to the mood of gloom and doom with all that is going on around us. However, just as with anything, there is a side too, that is scarcely talked about. There have also been some positive impacts of this pandemic that one couldn’t have foreseen beforehand. So, without further ado, below we have covered a few positive side effects of this curse of a pandemic!

Este artículo presenta dos lecturas disidentes en torno al concepto de igualdad. La primera, debate su contenido y forma, emanados de la modernidad capitalista, a partir de la discusión de lo que aquí se denomina el modo Monsanto, paradigma de ese modo de ser y de hacer capitalista consistente en la instauración de procesos de homogeneización, igualación, orden, individualización, desproporción, des-sujetización y depredación, constituidos durante los quinientos años de existencia del sistema mundial. La segunda se centra en el modo Cherrapunji, para ilustrar que frente a esa simplificación de la vida y la amenaza de aniquilación de la misma, se constituye la diferencia, la diversidad, complejidad, complementación, proporcionalidad, sujetidad, intersubjetividad y acoplamiento de los sujetos que fueron otrizados por la modernidad capitalista, imponiendo tanto un reto ante la lógica de destrucción y muerte imperante, como una posibilidad de constituir otro mundo posible a partir del principio de completud y la acción comunitaria en donde, si bien no reina la igualdad, que tampoco se requiere ni se desea, sí se coloca a la vida como centro de un nuevo modo de ser y hacer no-capitalista.

This article intends to present an analysis of the progress and decline of the Fatimid dynasty, and their impact on Islamic civilization in Egypt. This caliphate was born between two political powers, the Abbasids in Baghdad, and the Umayyad II in Cordova. Over a period of 262 years, the Fatimids have made rapid progress, especially during the time of Al-Muiz, Al-Aziz and Al-hakim. These advances cover various fields, namely: 1) Progress in trade relations with the non-Islamic world, including India and the Christian Mediterranean countries. 2) Advances in art, can be seen in a number of palace decorations and architecture. 3) In the field of knowledge with the construction of Al-Azhar University. 4) In the economic sector, both in the agricultural, trade and industrial sectors. 5) In the field of security. The collapse of the Fatimid dynasty was caused by several weaknesses that existed during his reign. These weaknesses include: 1) Fatimid politics which is harsh on the Egyptian Sunni community to adhere to and recognize Shi'a teachings. 2) The control over the Fatimid territories was weakened, 3) the economy of the people and the state was weak, 4) There was resistance from the Sunnis and Christians in Egypt. 5) The struggle for power between the Barbarians and the Turks, especially in the military field. 6) The invasion of the crusaders. And the role of the caliphate is not fully functional.

Over the centuries, the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi and the ancient buildings next to it have witnessed many political, economic and historical changes. The holy place, which in the XIIth century was a place of pilgrimage among the people, was transformed and equipped by Emir Timur in the XIVth century. Later, in the everyday capital of the Kazakh Khanate, these places were also witnesses of many historical events, and the article tells about the position of this place, the mausoleum and nearby historical sites in the XIXth century and the beginning of the XXth century. The position of the mausoleum, its premises, fortifications around the city in the early XIXth century, during the reign of the Kokand Khanate, as well as monuments located near Azret Sultan for centuries are described. The fate of the Azret Sultan mausoleum and the mausoleums adjacent to it was associated with politics and events during the reign of the Kokand Khanate and the Russian Empire. The article contains notes of researchers who at that time wrote about the position of the mausoleum, drawings and photographs of research by military and scientists. Particular interest are the written information of the XIXth century left by M.S. Bekchurin, P.I. Lerhom, I.I. Pashino, A.K. Gaines, photos, Turkestan album by V.V. Vereshchagin, the work of an amateur archaeological circle. A comprehensive study of the mausoleum can be found in articles and works of P.N. Akhmerova, A. Divaeva, N.S. Lykoshin. The article tells about the mausoleum, its position, research and renovation in the XIXth century and the beginning of the XX th century

The problem of large-scale migration of British and Irish Catholics to continental Europe in the 16th—18th centuries is investigated. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that the religious schools of Catholics in Europe were seen as examples of pious communities, the foundations on which the emerging traditions of religious tolerance, stability and commercial prosperity were built in England. It is noted that this fueled the arguments of the supporters of liberal religious reforms in the UK in the 19th century. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that the study of the movement of Catholics to Europe makes it possible to reveal the degree of influence of religious schools on British politics and public opinion, to understand how the expatriate community in exile functioned, adapted and communicated. Migration has been proven to be most intense during the Elizabethan period and early Stuart reign, but its impact on religious life in Britain and Ireland was felt over a longer period, until the end of the 18th century. The authors conclude that for Catholics who remained in England, religious institutions in Europe were not only a source of supply of missionary priests and religious literature, but also a link with the continental Counter-Reformation.

Joaquim Manuel de Macedo foi o primeiro escritor romântico brasileiro de grande repercussão. Apesar de ter sido um dos maiores literatos do Segundo Reinado, Macedo acabou esquecido no século XX, tendo, de toda a sua extensa e popular obra, apenas o romance A Moreninha sustentado a popularidade. No intuito de compreender como ocorreu essa perda de prestígio de Macedo, o trabalho aqui desenvolvido tem como objetivo central a trajetória de vida do romancista e, como específico, pensar a circulação do autor entre os mais diversos ‘espaços de sociabilidade’ da corte do Rio de Janeiro. Para isso, o trabalho está dividido em três partes: na primeira, é descrita a trajetória de Joaquim Manuel de Macedo utilizando alguns críticos que trabalharam sua obra, principalmente Antônio Cândido; na segunda, faz-se uma análise do escritor dentro do movimento literário romântico. E, por último, uma pequena conclusão, não esgotando o assunto e deixando-o em aberto para investigações futuras.

The Aqueduct of old Cairo, “Magra Al Ayoun” is a major medieval water work in old Cairo. one of the most prominent historical Islamic monuments in Cairo, because of its historical and geographical value since its establishment during the reign of Sultan Nasser Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubed state in Egypt who took power from 565 Ah / 1169 AD to 589 Ah / 1193 AD. It was neglected over the past 100 years by Egypt's rulers. Consequently, the aqueduct was exposed to natural deterioration and human encroachments. The valorization of the Aqueduct could greatly contribute to the enhancement of the old city fabric. The aqueduct could also constitute a major site for tourist development, because of its linear shape that allows crossing to an important part of the Old City. The Governorate of Cairo works in coordination with the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities permanently to develop this area to revive this monument, after this area was subjected to major infringements and irregularities, where the place was surrounded by waste and animal pens, so the project works on the restoration of the parts that were demolished and revive the drivers through laser lighting and the establishment of gardens, restaurants, and shops of handicrafts in addition to halls of cultural performances and heritage concerts, in order to represent this area a new addition to the tourist and cultural places in the capital. This paper aims to shed light on the huge project of revival of Aqueduct.

The androgynous heroine of Ikeda Ryoko’s manga The Rose of Versailles (1972‐73), Oscar Françoise de Jarjayes, is usually depicted in masculine, specifically military, attire. The sixth daughter of an important military colonel during the reign of Louis XV and Louis XVI, Oscar is raised as a son and follows her father into the military. Oscar is only ever depicted in one dress, known as the robe l’odalisque ‐ a gown that is adopted at a pivotal moment of character development. It is while wearing this dress, which Ikeda intended to serve as a wedding dress, that Oscar comes to terms with her unrequited love for Marie Antoinette’s lover, Count Axel von Fersen. In doing so, Oscar places more importance on her allegiance to France than to romance. This article investigates the complicated gender and social politics that are symbolized by the choice to wear women’s clothing in The Rose of Versailles.

The awakening of Gothic in literature in 1764 marked a milestone in the development of the Western literary canon. The inclusion of the supernatural and the horrific provoked the end of the reign of Enlightenment and opened the door for Romanticism. In Spain it took a while longer for the new literary trend to flourish. However, a group of writers who had published during the last decades of the eighteenth century started to include gothic elements in their works, creating Enlightenment-Gothic hybrids. Some of these authors were Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Jose Cadalso and Juan Melendez Valdes. Their El delincuente honrado, Noches lugubres, and “A Jovino, el melancolico,” respectively prove that gothic and sublime aesthetics also affected Spanish belles lettres. Resumen: El surgimiento de la literatura gotica en 1764 supuso un hito en el desarrollo del canon literario occidental. La inclusion de lo sobrenatural y lo terrorifico provoco el final del reinado de la Ilustracion y allano el camino al Romanticismo. En Espana, su florecimiento se haria esperar algo mas. Sin embargo, un grupo de escritores que habian venido publicando desde las ultimas decadas del siglo XVIII comenzaron a incluir elementos goticos en sus obras, creando hibridos entre el espiritu ilustrado y la literatura gotica. Algunos de esos autores fueron Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Jose Cadalso y Juan Melendez Valdes. Sus El delincuente honrado, Noches lugubres y “A Jovino, el melancolico”, respectivamente, prueban que las esteticas gotica y sublime ya se habian integrado en las belles lettres espanolas.

Merciful Augusta. Margaret of Brabant as counselor, mediator and saint in Italy (1310-1311) This article shows that Margaret of Brabant (1276-1311), Queen of the Romans, played an influential diplomatic and moral role on the international stage and had great influence on her husband, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, in the perception of her contemporaries, who glorified the love between the two. A study of several letters addressed to her shows how Margaret helped her spouse to build a stable political network based on personal relations. This article then discusses the perception of Margaret in contemporary historiography and it demonstrates that early humanists Albertino Mussato and Giovanni de Cermenate both acknowledge her importance as a political counselor and mediator crucial to Henry’s reign. This view contrasts with other accounts of her life, in which she is solely remembered for her piety and holiness. Indeed, these aspects came to dominate the memory of Margaret soon after her death, as the Franciscans promoted her cult as ‘Holy Empress’.

Undoubtedly, the Mongolian invasions rank first among the chain of events that shaped the fate of the states and left indisputable effects on the societies in their path during the Middle Ages. The invasions began during the reign of great Chinghis Khan who had the ideal of world domination. With the invasions, on one hand, the political equilibrium in several regions was changed dramatically; on the other hand, the religious and intellectual (including those of ṣūfī structures) patterns of the societieswere also deeply influenced by depending on the changing political balance. Conventionally, the way the religious and ṣūfī structures in this period were affected has usually been studied by referencing the historical sources. However, such evaluations neglecting the menākibnāmes in which the stories of the sheikhs and dervishes of these religious and ṣūfī structures were told fall short in variety of aspects. As the menākibnāmes were regarded as the sacred literary texts that were formed in the context of the semantic worlds of the sheikhs and dervishes, they can serve as complimentary sources for the period that can shed light on the neglected spots of the historical studies. Nonetheless,the menākibnāmes not only convey the words and actions of wisdom by the ṣūfīs but also reflectthe traces of the social and religious structures these ṣūfīs lived in. In this study, therefore, themenākibnāmes, which have invaluable significance in terms of cultural history, were used accordinglywith the historical sources. Using menākibnāmes as a source led us to the conclusion that there weretwo different narratives regarding the Mongolian invasions. When historical sources and modernstudies are surveyed, it can be implied that the Mongols’ own belief in their status as selected nationand their notion of a universal empire were among the most important factors in their quest forconquests. Equally important, the richness of the Islamic world and the welcoming attitudes of someMuslim states further motivated the Mongols for conquests. When the historical progress of theconquests is followed from the menākibnāmes, however, a different kind of narrative appears. Thisdifferent narrative was especially elaborated in the narratives of Nafahāt al-Uns, Menāḳib al-ʿĀrifīn,Sipehsālār Risalesi and Vilāyet-Nāme. The records of these menākibnāmes help us comprehend themental and intellectual world of some sheikhs and dervishes, and allow for how they interpreted theMongolian invasions. Keywords: The Mongol Invasions, Historical Sources, Menākibnāmes, Sheikhs and Dervishes,Prophecies.

Cutting grain is a remarkable Ramesside ritual in the Theban temples during the New Kingdom. Five scenes are found depicting the king as a harvester cutting grain before the deities of fertility in the New Kingdom temples of Thebes. The ritual was rarely represented in the New Kingdom and it was performed in the Theban temples only during the reigns of Kings Ramesses II and Ramesses III. After the reign of King Ramesses III, this ritual was no more attested in the Theban temples. However, it regained its importance once more during the Ptolemaic Period. Grain crops were sacred and aphrodisiac offerings of the male sexual potency and masculine virility during the festival of the fertility-god Min. Therefore, the image of the self-created god Amun-Re in his form as Kamutef, the fertility-god Min, and the fecund-god Hapy of the fertile Nile and flooding dominated the scenes of the ritual, in reference to the role of the male deities in fecundation, regeneration, birth, and rebirth.

The research dealt with the political influence of Egypt in the Levant during the period (1580-1187 BC). The research consists of three axes, the first axis was entitled (The geopolitical location of the Levant), which is one of the regions of Western Asia, in the region that extends from the Taurus Mountains to the north. As far as North Sinai in the south, and from the Mediterranean in the west, to the Badia and Mesopotamia in the east, which includes the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Palestine, the Syrian Arab Republic and the Lebanese Republic, and by virtue of the geographical location of Bilad al-Sham and its connection with its neighbors - it was forced to act as a mediator and be affected by the surrounding force, so its civilization became influenced by others. Among the civilizations of the nations adjacent to it, the importance of the Levant did not differ in relation to the Nile countries and the pharaohs of the modern state during the era of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties during the period (1580-1187 BC), including for defensive purposes, after the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and the extension of their influence to the Syrian regions, this step is considered as A security valve for it, and also the formation of an empire for it in West Asia until it reached the limits of the Levant, and also for commercial purposes by virtue of its location, as controlling the Levant guarantees the progress of the exchange To trade between Egypt and the Levant, especially with the Phoenician coast, the second axis entitled ( the political influence of Egypt in the Levant during the Eighteenth Dynasty during the period (1580-1308 BC)), which included the military campaigns carried out by the kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty; as Egypt sought In building its empire by annexing the regions of the Levant, placing a large part of Syria under its control, and the most prominent king of the eighteenth family was Thutmose III (1479-142 BC), after his victory in the Battle of Megiddo, he limited the expansionist ambitions of the Hurrian Mitan kings towards Syria until He arrived in Lebanon. As for Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) (1360-1343 BC), he lost some of its possessions to Egypt in Asia due to the rebellion of the Syrian cities due to their subordination to Egyptian rule, and also the Egyptians followed a new administrative system in the Levant, as Gaza City was in The beginning of the modern state served as the main center and stronghold for the Egyptian commissioners / observers, so the local princes were under the control of these Egyptians, in addition to the presence of administrative centers for the Egyptians in Syria and Palestine such as Iankhmu, Prince of Byblos, and Dayaa, the king of Gaza, and Aya, the Emir of Sidon, and each of these centers represented the residence of the deputy The Egyptian king or A. To the agent / commissioner, this indicates that during this period of the rule of Thutmose III, the process of collecting tribute from West Asia through this largely administrative system, which was under the control of the Egyptian government, this system was successful and remained integrated for a century after that, it referred to it. The letters of Tell el Amarna in the fourteenth century B.C. There are also three centers that served as Egyptian administrative and military bases spread in the Levant. The first base is in the (Amuro) region. The second base is located in the Obi district, which is Damascus, and the third base includes Canaan and its center in Gaza as well as the exploitation of the Pharaohs. For minerals, the most prominent of which is silver and copper found in the Levant, the third axis entitled (The political influence of Egypt in the Levant during the nineteenth dynasty during the period (1308-1187 BC)) has emerged from King Seti I (1296-1279) and his son Ramses II ( 1279-1212 B.C.) through their foreign policy towards the Levant and reaching Syria and Lebanon through the campaigns that were sent there that aimed to impose the prestige of the Egyptian influence in both Palestine and southern Syria and during the reign of Ramses II the Egyptian empire in Asia was limited to fils Mud, Lebanon and a small part of Syria, especially the ports that were on the shore

2020 is a tough year for humans due to the Covid-19 pandemic which has attacked all sides of human life. One of the most affected is the human mentality, and this mentality must be restored so that in the post-pandemic era, humans can be active and do everything as before. The church also has a duty to carry out this and the church has teachings that can be given to humans in general and Christians in particular as material for healing, one of which is eschatology which relates to the teachings of Postmillennialism. The method of this research is descriptive method with literature study techniques. Some of the characteristics of Postmillennial teachings are: First, Postmillennialists believe that what mankind is waiting for, namely the coming of God's reign, has actually started since the first coming of Jesus. Second, the 1000 year reign is led by Jesus through the church and Third, Postmillennialism believes in the central role of the gospel. From these characteristics, the Postmillennial Viewpoint can contribute to raising hope for the future and as material for Christian Counseling / Pastoral Assistance, contributing to encouraging churches to be actively involved in human life, Postmillennialism Views Encourage evangelism as a human need in the post-pandemic era

This goddess takes some importance in the worship from the local goddesses, especially if it is related to some important functions of the god, including this important goddess who is worshipped in the western region of wAst. It is xft-Hr nb.s, who frequently represented in anthropomorphic form as a goddess, wearing a long tight dress, a hieroglyphic sign of the west upon her head and hanging in their arms the anx sign of life which appears between Dd, wAs on the nb sign. The oldest record of the name of the goddess Khefethernebes is from a stela of Antefoqer as ”xftt-Hr nb.s”, as a name of a locality, dates back to the reign of Amenemhat I. Khefethernebes participates in the scenes of judgment, welcomes the deceased into the afterlife and provide support and protection for the deceased. Khefethernebes is associated with the goddess Hathor, Waset, Imntet, Weret-Hekaw, Nut , Isis and Meret-Seger. The article aims to investigate the iconography, epithets and functions of goddess Khefethernebes in order to lay emphasize her forms, roles, titles, and her relation with other goddesses.

El escritor Antonio Ferrer del Río (1814-1872) ha sido considerado tradicionalmente como un exponente paradigmático de la historiografía progresista por sus obras dedicadas a las Comunidades de Castilla y al reinado de Carlos III. Sin embargo, en el marco de las recientes aportaciones sobre culturas políticas liberales y las relaciones entre nacionalismo y religión en España, se hace necesario revisar esta adscripción ideológica. Un análisis que vaya más allá de las etiquetas simplificadoras revela, en cambio, la complejidad de la aportación de este historiador. Para ello, se ha recurrido a la correspondencia que mantuvo con los archiveros Manuel y Pròsper de Bofarull y a otras producciones menos conocidas, además de sus publicaciones en prensa. Así pues, a través de la contextualización de este material se revela un liberalismo cambiante, que a principios del régimen isabelino se situaba cercano al moderantismo, para luego evolucionar hacia posturas abiertamente progresistas. La rehabilitación historiográfica que este autor emprendió del reformismo dieciochesco ofrece una oportunidad para ahondar en las contradicciones y límites del liberalismo católico hispánico. The writer Antonio Ferrer del Río (1814-1872) has traditionally been considered a paradigmatic exponent of progressive historiography for his works dedicated to the Communities of Castile and the reign of Charles III of Spain. However, in the light of recent contributions on liberal political cultures and the relations between nationalism and religion in Spain, this ideological ascription needs to be reviewed. Analysis that sets aside oversimplified labels will give us greater insight into the complexity of the historian’s contribution. Sources include his correspondence with the archivists Manuel and Pròsper de Bofarull, and other lesser-known works he wrote, in addition to his publications in the press. Their contextualization reveals a changing attitude towards liberalism, which at the beginning of the reign of Isabella II was close to Moderantism, and then evolved towards openly progressive positions. The historiographical rehabilitation of eighteenth-century reformism undertaken by this author offers an opportunity to probe the contradictions and limits of Hispanic catholic liberalism. Este trabajo forma parte del proyecto de investigación «Tradición y originalidad en la cultura humanística de Indias. Géneros, paratextos y traducciones en el mundo atlántico (siglos XVI-XVII)» (FFI2017-87858-P).

Our study focuses on an inscription from Montehermoso (province of Cáceres). Through a complete morphological and textual analysis, we suggest that this inscription, already known from research, is a terminus Augustalis. And we can add it to the series of similar epigraphic testimonies from this region of northern Lusitania and chronologically ascribable to the Augustan reign. In addition, we present all the problems regarding the question of which communities could be whose territory were delimited by this boundary–stone. Nuestro estudio se centra en una inscripción procedente de la localidad cacereña de Montehermoso. Aunque ya conocida por la investigación, a través de un completo análisis morfológico y textual planteamos que nos hallamos ante un terminus Augustalis, que podemos sumar a la serie de testimonios epigráficos similares procedentes de esta región de la Lusitania septentrional y adscribibles cronológicamente al principado augusteo. Además, presentamos todas las problemáticas acerca de la cuestión de cuáles pudieron ser las comunidades cuyos territoria delimitaba esta inscripción terminal.

Although Catholics were marginalized and strongly associated with Jacobitism under the early Hanoverians, the reign of George III saw a gradual assimilation of Catholics into mainstream political culture. The Vicars Apostolic of Great Britain played a key role in this process by emphasizing passivity and loyalty. The bishop who most strongly personified this Jacobite to loyalist transition was George Hay (1729-1811). A convert to Catholicism from the Scottish Episcopalian faith, Hay served the Jacobite Army as a medic in 1745 and was imprisoned following that conflict. After his conversion and subsequent ordination, Hay became coadjutor of the Lowland District of Scotland in 1769 and was promoted to the Apostolic Vicarate in 1778. Hay actively engaged with many high-profile statesmen and political thinkers, including Edmund Burke. Most notably, he constructively utilized Jacobite political theology to criticise revolutionary ideology. His public involvement in politics was most remarkable during the American and French Revolutions, when he confidently deployed the full force of counterrevolutionary doctrines that formerly alienated Catholics from the Hanoverian state. However, since the Age of Revolution presented a stark duality between monarchy and republicanism, Hay’s expressions of passive obedience and non-resistance endeared him and the Catholic Church to the British establishment.