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Objectives: The purpose of this research was two-fold: (1) to explore the relationship between descriptive and injunctive norm perceptions on stair-use, and (2) to examine the impact of social and non-social stair prompts on stair use. Design: Study 1 employed a cross-sectional design, and Study 2 had a time-series experimental design, with two baseline periods and two intervention periods. Method: A total of 226 adults completed the online survey for Study 1, reporting their social norm perceptions and individual stair use. For Study 2, 8007 individuals entered the stairwell or elevator over the four-week observation period, either measured by infrared people-counters installed across the entrance to the stairs or by observed trainers positioned near the elevators. Results: Study 1 showed a positive relationship between descriptive and injunctive norm perceptions and individual stair use. Study 2 found social prompts to significantly increase the proportion of individuals taking the stairs compared to baseline. The non-social prompts did not increase stair use beyond the effects of the social prompts. Conclusions: Individuals perceptions of what is typical and/or desirable behaviour relates to individuals self reported stair use. Further, findings support the use of social messages as an alternate message for prompting stair use in a university setting. Health practitioners may wish to harness the power of social influence and emphasise that stair use is typical and desirable. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Objectives The purpose was to explore the relationship between athletes’ self-compassion and perceptions of their teammates’ self-compassion (descriptive norm). A secondary purpose was to explore whether gender moderated this relationship. Design Cross-sectional, online survey. Method Team sport competitive athletes (N = 108; Mage = 23.1 years; SDage = 4.68) reported their descriptive norm perceptions of their teammates’ self-compassion as well as their own self-compassion. Results Hierarchical regression analysis indicated a positive relationship between descriptive norms and self-compassion, explaining 17.2% of the variance in self-compassion. The more it was perceived that teammates were engaging in self-compassion, the more likely athletes reported being self-compassionate (β = 0.39). There were no significant main or interaction effects of gender. Conclusions Athletes’ self-compassion is related to their perceptions of how often their teammates are self-compassionate. Coaches and sport psychologists should encourage athletes to build awareness about how their cognitions and behaviours relate to others’ cognitions and behaviours.

This chapter describes how group norms are associated with youth athletes’ cognitions and behaviors in the context of sport. The chapter begins by identifying different types of norms, how norms develop within groups, as well as the function or purpose of norms, providing specific sport examples. Theoretical perspectives are described that outline how norm perceptions can act as a source of social influence. The chapter then considers the relevance of norms within the youth population and describes the importance of peers during youth development. Research exploring group norms in youth sport is then described, providing support for the positive association between group norms and youth athlete behaviors, as well as identifying factors that moderate the norm–behavior relationship. The chapter concludes by advancing future directions for researchers interested in exploring group norms in youth sport contexts.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived social norms emanating from two different channels (i.e. coaches and peers) and individual self-reported effort in youth athletes. Female youth athletes (N = 145, Mage = 13.9 years) attending a five-day summer volleyball sport camp self-reported their perceptions of their coach's approval of effort during the camp (coach subjective norm), how many of their peers exerted effort during the camp (peer descriptive norm), and their own effort during the camp. Results from a regression analysis indicated that perceived social norms associated with both channels were positively associated with self-reported effort, accounting for 13% of the variance. These results suggest that both coach and peer normative information may be important external sources of motivation associated with individual effort in youth sport. This highlights the possible importance of including normative information from either source, and suggests that both coaches and peers may be important channels of normative influence. If replicated, the current findings have implications for understanding the social influences associated with athlete effort in youth athletes. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in athlete leadership behaviours based on one's athlete leader status. Intercollegiate athletes (N = 299) self-identified their leadership status (i.e., formal leader, informal leader, follower) and rated the frequency of their own leadership behaviours. Results revealed that formal athlete leaders engaged in Training and Instruction more often than informal athlete leaders; with informal athlete leaders reporting higher frequencies than followers. Further, formal and informal athlete leaders reported engaging in Social Support more often than followers. These findings provide preliminary evidence of a top-down approach to leadership among athletes. No differences were found for Democratic Behaviour and Positive Feedback, suggesting that athlete leadership also is distributed among teammates. Results highlight important practical implications for sport practitioners in regard to athlete leader development. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Issue Addressed: Public service announcements (PSA) targeting physical activity arenot always effective at enacting behaviour change. One factor that may impact mes-sage effectiveness is whether the message matches its intent (ie, what norm is being portrayed and received). The current study explored the effects of two PSAs on parents’ perceptions of outdoor play Methods: Parents (N = 333) completed a pre/post experimental online survey to examine the acute impact of a PSA on their perception of how often children play outdoors (ie, descriptive norms). Participants provided their descriptive norm perceptions and then were randomised to view one of two PSAs: (a) the Mr. Lonely PSA,which portrayed outdoor activity as not normative, and (b) a control message, which portrayed outdoor activity as the norm (VERB PSA). After viewing their PSA,descriptive norm perceptions were reported again. Results: A two‐way mixed ANOVA indicated that participants who viewed the Mr. Lonely PSA (where outdoor play was not normative) perceived that children and youth played outdoors less frequently immediately after watching the PSA compared to before viewing it (P < 0.05). No significant change occurred in the control condition Conclusions: PSAs can alter individuals’ perceptions of whether they perceive out-door play as normative among children and youth So what? As individuals align their behaviour with what is typical, PSA developers should be wary of what message is being conveyed. In terms of activity, portraying that outdoor play is not normative may not have the intended outcome. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The primary purpose of this research was to examine the influence of different normative (descriptive, injunctive) messages on individual self-reported effort in sport. Adult recreational volleyball athletes (n = 58) reported their self-perceived effort, were randomly assigned through their team designation to one of three conditions (descriptive norm, injunctive norm, control) and then received multiple e-mail messages specific to their condition motivating them to work hard. Participants reported their self-perceived effort a second time after receipt of these messages. The results from a one-way ANCOVA, controlling for initial perceived effort, revealed that those in the normative conditions reported greater perceived effort than those in the control condition. Preliminary evidence is provided suggesting that individual self-reported effort may be significantly impacted by the perception of what others are doing and what others approve of within that environment (i.e., normative information).

Objectives To investigate the magnitude of the home advantage in the National Hockey League (NHL) as games proceeded from regulation, to overtime, to the shootout, while adjusting for team quality. Design Archival. Method Binary logistic regression analyses were conducted using data from the 2005–2006 through 2013–2014 NHL seasons ( N = 10,534 games) to compare home teams’ odds of winning in regulation, overtime, and the shootout. Results Compared to games decided in regulation, higher quality home teams' odds of winning were slightly lower when games concluded in either overtime or the shootout. Further, regardless of team quality, home teams’ odds of winning were moderately lower when games concluded in the shootout rather than overtime. Conclusions The shootout may affect home team players' psychological and behavioural states, generally resulting in a decrease in home teams’ odds of winning in the shootout relative to overtime.

Objective: Two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between past physical activity, concurrent self-regulatory efficacy (CSRE), and current physical activity during the transition to university. Participants: Study 1 included 110 first-year undergraduate students recruited during October/November of 2012. Study 2 involved 86 first-year undergraduate students recruited during October/Novemberof 2013. Methods: Surveys were completed online, concurrently (Study 1) and prospectively (Study 2). Results: CSRE was found to positively predict current physical activity participation in both studies. However, the relation of CSRE to physical activity was attenuated when past behavior was taken into account. Conclusions: Physical activity is one goal that university students pursue concurrently with other goals. Not only is current planned activity related to one's past participation in physical activity, it is also related to self-regulatory beliefs about managing that activity in the new context of university life. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Objectives Previous research has reported a positive relationship between perceptions of cohesion and adherence within structured exercise settings. Given that the social determinants of adherence can vary across situations, this study aimed to examine the cohesion–adherence relationship in unstructured exercise settings. Design This study employed a cross-sectional design. Methods Young adults ( N = 125) recalled an unstructured exercise group where they had been participants, and then rated their perceptions of cohesion with respect to that group as well as reported the number of times/month they had been active in that group. Results Regression results revealed that cohesion was significantly related to adherence. Individuals who reported higher levels of task and lower levels of social cohesion, with both dimensions of cohesion reflecting the perceptions of the group as a totality, attended more sessions. Conclusions These findings extend research reporting that the cohesiveness perceived in a structured exercise group is related to adherence. However, there were two findings that were not consistent with previous research. The failure of the task dimension associated with satisfying personal needs and objectives to emerge as well as the emergence of a negative relationship with one of the social dimensions of cohesion suggest that the relationship between cohesion and adherence may play out differently in an unstructured versus structured setting with young adults.

Objectives The primary purpose of this research was to examine the influence of descriptive norms (perceptions of others' effort) on individual self-reported effort in sport. A secondary purpose was to examine the effect of the perceptions of norms associated with reference groups that differed on personal and contextual characteristics on an athlete's perceived effort, while controlling for an individual's reasons for working hard. Design A cross-sectional study (N = 50) was conducted with adolescent athletes playing on sport teams. Method Athletes completed a survey that assessed their reasons for putting forth effort, their self-perceived effort levels, and their perceptions about the effort of three different reference groups (friends on team, teammates, and other athletes within the same league). Results The results from a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that perceptions of descriptive norms predicted individual effort, after controlling for personal reasons for working hard. In terms of reference groups, individual effort was associated most with the norm of the friend group. Conclusions The influence of the perception of others' behavior on an individual's behavior was extended to the sport outcome of effort. Given that it was the norm of friends that emerged, preliminary evidence is provided suggesting that personal similarities may be more important than contextual similarities for predicting the reference group that will influence this individual behavior in an adolescent sport setting.