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Macroscopic T-wave alternans (TWA) is a rare finding on surface electrocardiogram and has been associated with an increased risk of impending sudden cardiac death. We highlight a case of macroscopic TWA in a patient with markedly prolonged QTc interval preceding ventricular electrical storm, which was refractory to medical management. Autonomic modulation of the stellate ganglion resulted in improvement in both TWA and QTc interval. (Level of Difficulty: Advanced.), Central Illustration

The interatrial septum is a structure with complex embryological development. The true atrial septum is a circumscribed structure, and transgression outside of this area during transseptal puncture may result in entry into the extracardiac space or aorta that may result in a pericardial effusion or cardiac tamponade. (Level of Difficulty: Intermediate.), Graphical abstract

Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, formerly Churg-Strauss Syndrome, is an uncommon disorder that carries a high mortality when coronary artery disease develops. Early recognition and treatment is crucial. We highlight an unusual presentation of acute coronary syndrome not associated with atherosclerotic coronary disease. (Level of Difficulty: Intermediate.), Graphical abstract, Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, formerly Churg-Strauss Syndrome, is an uncommon disorder that carries a high mortality when coronary…

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Cardiovascular involvement in coronavirus disease 2019 (CoVID-19) is relatively common and portends an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Manifestations of myocardial injury may exhibit significant overlap and result in diagnostic uncertainty. This review will summarize recent literature around cardiovascular complications of CoVID-19. RECENT FINDINGS: Venous thromboembolism, atrial fibrillation, and type II myocardial infarction are observed commonly in CoVID-19, while severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 viral myocarditis remains quite rare. Although infrequent, CoVID-19 vaccination has been associated with myocarditis and pericarditis in young individuals. SUMMARY: Various forms of CoVID-19-related myocardial injury have been associated with increased utilization of mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic deterioration, and mortality. Manifestations of myocardial injury in CoVID-19 are varied, but share common drivers of illness including sequelae of sepsis, immune-mediated factors, and a prothrombotic state. Understanding the forms of myocardial injury in CoVID-19 may aid in rapid diagnosis and treatment.

In early stage buccal mucosa carcinoma, in spite of successful curative surgery, the health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) may not improve. We aimed to study HRQoL in these patients who had undergone successful curative surgery and determined factors that influence the HRQoL. Subjects, aged 18–70 years, who had undergone successful curative surgery for stage I and II buccal mucosa cancer, were assessed for HRQoL using the University of Washington Quality of Life Questionnaire and factors affecting HRQoL were determined. Their scores were compared with normative reference scores. 54 patients (stages I 54%, II 46%) aged 44 ± 11 years (87% males) were studied. They had undergone curative surgery a median of 8.5 (IQR 4–13.5) months ago. Their mean global HRQoL score was 77 ± 30, with significantly poorer scores compared to reference in domains of appearance, activity, swallowing, chewing, speech, shoulder, saliva, mood and anxiety. Anxiety, activity, and chewing were considered the most important domains by the patients. Among the factors influencing HRQoL, duration since surgery was the most important factor, and patients with recent surgery had worse performance in chewing, saliva and mood. Patients with stage II had worse performance in shoulder and anxiety compared to stage I. Post-operative radiotherapy worsened swallowing and shoulder function. In spite of successful curative surgery for buccal mucosa carcinoma, the HRQoL continues to remain sub-optimal with poor scores in most of the domains. These domains must be focused on with appropriate measures in order to improve overall HRQoL in patients after successful curative surgery.

Objective Inflammation in adipose tissues in obesity promotes insulin resistance and metabolic disease. The Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines (DARC) is a promiscuous non-signaling receptor expressed on erythrocytes and other cell types that modulates tissue inflammation by binding chemokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and by acting as a chemokine reservoir. DARC allelic variants are common in humans, but the role of DARC in modulating obesity-related metabolic disease is unknown. Methods We examined body weight gain, tissue adiposity, metabolic parameters and inflammatory marker expression in wild-type and DARC knockout mice fed a chow diet (CD) and high fat diet (HFD). Results Compared to wild-type mice, HFD-fed DARC knockout mice developed glucose intolerance and insulin resistance independent of increases in body weight or adiposity. Interestingly, insulin sensitivity was also diminished in lean male DARC knockout mice fed a chow diet. Insulin production was not reduced by DARC gene deletion, and plasma leptin levels were similar in HFD fed wild-type and DARC knockout mice. MCP-1 levels in plasma rose significantly in the HFD fed wild-type mice, but not in the DARC knockout mice. Conversely, adipose tissue MCP-1 levels were higher, and more macrophage crown-like structures were detected, in the HFD fed DARC knockout mice as compared with the wild-type mice, consistent with augmented adipose tissue inflammation that is not accurately reflected by plasma levels of DARC-bound MCP-1 in these mice. Conclusions These findings suggest that DARC regulates metabolic function and adipose tissue inflammation, which may impact obesity-related disease in ethnic populations with high frequencies of DARC allelic variants.

Three-dimensional (3-D) printing is a method of manufacturing in which materials like plastic or metal are deposited onto one another in layers to produce a 3-D object. Because of the complex anatomy of craniomaxillofacial structures, full recovery of craniomaxillofacial tissues from trauma, surgeries, or congenital malformations is extremely challenging. 3-D printing of scaffolds, tissue analogs, and organs has been proposed as an exciting alternative to address some of these key challenges in craniomaxillofacial surgery. There are four broad types of 3-D printing surgical applications that can be used in craniomaxillofacial surgery: contour models (positive-space models to allow preapplication of hardware before surgery), guides (negative-space models of actual patient data to guide cutting and drilling), splints (negative-space models of virtual postoperative positions to guide final alignment), and implants (negative-space 3-D printed implantable materials or 3-D printed molds into which nonprintable materials are poured). 3-D printing technology is being successfully used for surgeries for head and neck malignancies, mandibular reconstruction, orthognathic surgeries, for mandibulectomies after osteoradionecrosis, orbital floor fracture surgeries, nasal reconstruction, and cranioplasties. The excitement behind 3-D printing continues to increase and hopefully will drive improvements in the technology and its surgical applications, especially in craniomaxillofacial region. This present review sets out to explore use of 3-D printing technologies in craniomaxillofacial surgery.

Peri-procedural management of dual antiplatelet therapy following percutaneous coronary intervention for esophagogastroduodenoscopy and intervention is not clearly defined. We describe a case of a patient with a drug-eluting stent implanted in the setting of an acute myocardial infarction six weeks earlier who was bridged with cangrelor after interruption of ticagrelor for esophageal balloon dilatation because of dysphagia. The patient tolerated the procedure well and was transitioned back to ticagrelor without any complications.

Background: Lobular capillary hemangioma is a common benign vascular tumor seen in the oral cavity. It occurs in response to various stimuli such as low-grade local irritation, traumatic insult, and hormonal factors or as a response to a wide variety of drugs. Materials and Methods: All patients presenting to the Department of Dentistry, Shyam Shah Medical College, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh during July 2014 to June 2016, who were diagnosed by histopathologic confirmation as oral lobular capillary hemangioma (OLCH), were evaluated for the area involved, clinicopathologic presentation, demographic features, and treatment. Results: A total of 94 cases were identified as OLCH by histopathologic confirmation during this period. The lesion occurred most commonly in the age group of 21–30 years. A characteristic female predominance (female: male ratio of 2.24:1) was seen. Anterior maxillary labial gingiva was most frequently involved (34.04%) followed by posterior maxillary buccal gingiva (14.89%). Conclusion: The clinicopathologic picture of OLCH found in this study was similar to other studies conducted on same as well different ethnic and geographical populations. Poor oral-dental-hygiene was observed in majority of patients (87.23%) dental health education should be an integral component of imparting oral health care by health providers. Surgical excision as a treatment modality renders good results with low recurrence rate.

Pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) with cryoballoon ablation (CBA) is routinely guided by fluoroscopy and utilizes contrast injection to ensure catheter positioning and pulmonary vein occlusion. Non-fluoroscopic imaging techniques including electromagnetic mapping (EM) and intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) have demonstrated reduced fluoroscopy times and contrast exposure. Utilization of color flow Doppler to evaluate vein occlusion with the balloon has not been evaluated as an alternative to contrast injection. In this study we evaluate the effectiveness of cryoablation guided by EM and ICE along with color Doppler to achieve PVI. We designed a retrospective cohort study comparing patients who were treated before and after implementation of EM (Carto 3, Biosense Webster) and ICE during CBA (AF Solutions, Medtronic). We analyzed patients receiving CBA with fluoroscopy plus EM and ICE (group 2; N = 24) versus fluoroscopy alone (group 1; N = 25). Procedural success was defined as freedom from atrial fibrillation or other atrial arrhythmias at 1 year post ablation. Primary outcomes were radiation time and contrast exposure. Procedural success was achieved in all cases. Total fluoroscopy time was reduced from 22.4 ± 9.8 min to 8.9 ± 5.1 min (P

Introduction Current guidelines recommend continuation of dual anti-platelet therapy (DAPT) for 12 months after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Recent studies have shown benefit in continuing DAPT beyond 12 months but at the risk of increase bleeding. To date, there has been little data on risk stratifying patients to determine who can continue DAPT beyond 12 months at minimal bleeding risk. Methods All patients who underwent drug-eluting stent (DES) placement from January 1, 2013 to September 30, 2014 were reviewed. Patients who had follow-up for at least 12 months, placement of 2nd generation everolimus-coated DES, and were on DAPT for at least 12 months were included. Patients with a history of atrial fibrillation, follow-up time less than 12 months, or were on concurrent oral anticoagulation therapy were excluded. Results Five hundred thirty-one patients were analyzed as described above. Two hundred two patients included in our study with 7 patients in the bleeding cohort and 195 patients in no-bleed cohort. The HAS-BLED score in patients who had a bleeding episode vs. those who did not was 3.29 vs. 2.24 (P value of 0.0009). Although not statistically significant, patients who had a bleeding episode were more likely to have renal dysfunction, alcohol use, be on prasugrel, and be on 325mg of aspirin. Conclusion The study shows that the HAS-BLED score can be of utility in risk stratifying patients in determining who can continue DAPT beyond 12 months. Furthermore, a HAS-BLED score of less than 2 may help guide extended DAPT beyond 12 months at minimal bleeding risk. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Coronary vasculitis and atherosclerosis share similar presentations; routine laboratory testing and a careful history can alter management. A 39 year-old Senegalese man presented with chest pain after a recently diagnosed STEMI. Coronary angiography at that time showed multi vessel disease with 99

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) occurs after an emotional or physical stressor. There have been case reports of patients undergoing electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) who have developed TCM. Prior reports were mainly female patients who developed TCM after their first treatment. This is a report of a

Thromboembolic cerebrovascular accident remains a rare but potentially devastating complication of catheter-based atrial fibrillation (AF) ablation. Uninterrupted oral anticoagulant therapy with warfarin has become the standard of care when performing catheter-based AF ablation. Compared with warfarin, apixaban, a factor Xa inhibitor, has been shown to reduce the risk of stroke and major bleeding in nonvalvular AF. With an increase in apixaban use for stroke prophylaxis in patients with AF, there is an increased interest in the safety and efficacy of uninterrupted apixaban therapy during AF ablation. We compared the safety and efficacy of uninterrupted OA therapy with either warfarin or apixaban in all patients who underwent catheter-based AF ablation at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and at Augusta University Medical Center from January 7, 2013, to February 25, 2016. All patients underwent a transesophageal echocardiogram on the day of their ablation to assess for the presence of intracardiac thrombi. All complications were identified and classified as bleeding, thromboembolic events, or other. A total of 627 patients were analyzed as described earlier. There were 310 patients in the warfarin group and 317 patients in the apixaban group. There were 8 complications in the warfarin group and 5 complications in the apixaban group (p = 0.38). There were no thromboembolic complications in either group. In conclusion, the use of apixaban is as safe and effective as warfarin for uninterrupted OA therapy during catheter-based ablation of AF.

Malnutrition is one of the most common causes of morbidity in patients undergoing maxillofacial surgery. In these patients, normal food intake is impaired because of the disease state and is complicated further by the surgical procedures. Surgery imparts controlled injury and delays wound healing capacity. Consideration should be given to the nutritional status of these patients in both preoperative and postoperative period so as to reduce postoperative complications. It should be imperative upon the part of dental professional to identify patients at nutritional risk, perform nutritional screening tests and provide dietary guidelines. In this paper we have focused on nutritional risk, nutritional assessment, and recommendations for such kind of patients.

Summary: Haemostasis is a defence mechanism that protects vascular integrity, avoids blood loss, and maintains blood fluidity throughout the circulatory system. Per oral hematoma secondary to anticoagulation is a rare fatal condition. Haemorrhagic complications of warfarin therapy are well known.In any case, the most important concern is the prevention of bleeding complications by compiling a detailed clinical history, with adequate planning of treatment, and taking special care to avoid soft tissue damage during the dental treatment of such patients. Only occasional reports state sublingual and labial vestibule hematoma formation as a result of deficient coagulation. This particular case is very unique in that the patient was on warfarin for the past 3 years but did not develop any hematoma. However trauma by fall triggered the episode of sublingual and buccal vestibular hematoma in this patient. The patient was managed by temporarily stopping warfarin for 4 days and transfusing 2 units of fresh frozen plasma. Tab. Warfarin was restarted after 4 days on alternate days and INR dropped to 2. The sharp cusp of the mandibular tooth was smoothened to prevent ulcer development. The hematoma resolved and no new hematoma formation was observed for a period of 6 months.

Ameloblastoma is a true neoplasm of odontogenic epithelial origin. It is the second most common odontogenic neoplasm, and only odontoma outnumbers it in reported frequency of occurrence. Its incidence, combined with its clinical behaviour, makes ameloblastoma the most significant odontogenic neoplasm. Unicystic ameloblastoma (UA) refers to those cystic lesions that show clinical, radiographic, or gross features of a mandibular cyst, but on histological examination, it showed a typical ameloblastomatous epithelium lining part of the cyst cavity, with or without luminal and/or mural tumor growth. It accounts for 5-15% of all intraosseous ameloblastomas. We report a case of unicystic ameloblastoma in a 16-year-old female, and review the literature.

Background and objectives: The aim of the study was to investigate the nickel and chromium ion release from the different brands of stainless steel brackets in to the normal saline. Materials and Methods: Five full set of Dentaurum,3M and Koden brackets were immersed in sterile plastic tube and marked A,B,C respectively, containing 50ml of Normal saline and maintained at 37°c for 3 weeks. The processing was done by using 0.5ml of saliva that was transferred to a 2ml plastic test tube with a micropipette. The chemical analysis for Ni and Cr is performed with an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. The concentration of Ni and Cr are expressed in micrograms per litre.This process was done by 1st,7th,14th and 21st day. The values are analyzed. Results: The nickel and chromium release of Koden brackets is high. The least release of nickel and chromium is observed in Dentaurum brackets. The chromium release is insignificant within the groups but it significant in duration of days. The nickel release is significant within the groups but it is insignificant in duration of days. Interpretation and Conclusion: Nickel and chromium release from different company brackets are not uniform, it varies. Koden brackets show more amount of nickel release, Dentaurum brackets show least amount of Nickel release.

A graft is a non-living material or living tissue used for implantation or transplantation to replace a diseased part or compensate for a defect. We repaired a case with an oronasal fistula using split thickness palatal graft on oral side. A 55-year-old man presented an oronasal fistula of the hard palate, measuring 1.0 x 1.2 cm. The fistula was 2 cm posterior to the incisive foramen. The scar tissue around the fistula was unhealthy. A laterally based oral mucosal flap, 2.0 x 1.5 cm, was designed, raised, and transposed to the defect. The secondary defect was covered with palatal plate. The oral mucosal flap was viable, and no sign of recurrence of fistula was noted until one month postoperative. This method can be an alternative in repair of the oronasal defect when any local tissue for repair is not available or insufficient.

Reader, Dept. of Maxillofacial surgery. Peoples Dental Academy, Peoples University, Bhopal. India. H.O.D. Dept of Peadodontics&Preventive Dentistry.Peoples Dental Academy, Peoples University, Bhopal. India. Post graduate student, Dept. of Public health Dentistry, Peoples Dental Academy, Peoples University, Bhopal. India. Post graduate student, Dept. of Peadodontics & Preventive Dentistry,Peoples Dental Academy, Peoples University, Bhopal. India. Lecturer, Dept. of Maxillofacial surgery.Peoples Dental Academy, Peoples University, Bhopal. India.

Background: The apparent interactions between the mechanisms of action of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) and steroids suggest that co-therapy may provide beneficial in inflammation and pain relief in the absence of side effects. The aim of the study was to compare the effect of co-administered diclofenac sodium and dexamethasone with diclofenac sodium with tramadol on the postoperative pain, swelling and trismus after surgical removal of third molars. Patients and Methods: A prospective randomized study was conducted at the Chowdhary hospital Bhopal. A total of 100 patients (age range: 20-35 years), with impacted third molar who underwent surgical removal were randomly allocated to two treatment groups. Group A of 50 patients who were given diclofenac sodium (50 mg Oral before and after surgery and dexamethasone (prophylactic 8 mg and postoperative 4 mg IV 8 th hourly) , and Group B of 50 patients who were given diclofenac sodium(50 mg Oral before and after surgery) with tramadol(50 mg orally). Postoperative pain was assessed with a visual analogue scale at 8 th hourly and 3 rd and 7 th postoperatively day (POD). Swelling was measured at 3 and 7th POD Maximal interincisor distance was measured at 3 and 7 POD. Patient treated with diclofenac sodium + dexamethasone showed lower pain score, larger postoperative mouth opening and less swelling compared to diclofenac sodium with tramadol. Results: Co-administration of dexamethasone and diclofenac sodium was significantly superior to diclofenac with tramadol for the relief of pain (P < 0.05), and facial swelling and post operative trismus up to postoperative 48 hour (P < 0.05). Conclusion: This study illustrates enhanced effects of co-administered dexamethasone and diclofenac sodium on short-term post-operative pain and swelling, compared to diclofenac with tramadol in third molar surgery.

Pulmonary vein isolation (PVI) with cryoballoon ablation (CBA) is routinely guided by fluoroscopy and utilizes contrast to ensure catheter positioning. Non-fluoroscopic techniques include electromagnetic mapping (EM) and intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) which have demonstrated reduced fluoroscopy

Orthokeratinized odontogenic cyst (OOC) is a developmental cyst that occurs in the jaw. it was initially defined by the world health organization as the orthokeratinized variant of odontogenic keratocyst (OKC). However, studies have shown that OOC has a peculiar clinicopathologic aspects when compared with other developmental odontogenic cysts, especially OKC's. The orthokeratinized odontogenic cyst is a distinct clinicopathologic entity and is histologically characterized by a thin, uniform, epithelial lining with orthokeratinization. Clinically, the orthokeratinized cyst is a single cyst, shows a predilection for males, and is most often found in the second to the fifth decade. It is not a dentigerous cyst but is often mistaken for a dentigerous cyst because of its association with unerrupted or impacted tooth in the posterior mandible. It exhibits lower clinical aggressiveness compared to its counterpart OKC. The purpose of the article is to present a case of large aggressive OOC in the anterior mandible and to highlight the importance of, distinguishing it from the more commonly occurring OKC or keratocystic odontogenic tumour (KCOT).

susceptibility to antibacterial agents of anaerobic strains in 118 patients with head and neck abscesses (31) and cellulitis (87). Materials and methods: In total, 118 pus specimens from 118 consecutive patients with abscesses (31 cases) and cellulitis (87) of the head and neck were evaluated from 2006 to the end of 2011. The patients were admitted to the University Hospital of Maxillofacial Surgery, Bhopal, India, and comprised 76 men and 42 women: Four children, 103 adults and 11 elderly people. Results: Anaerobic bacteria (174 strains within 18 genera) were found in 88 (74.6%) of the 118 specimens. Anaerobes only were present in 23 (19.5%) specimens, aerobic/facultative bacteria only in 20 (16.9%) and mixed aerobic/anaerobic flora in 65 (55.1%). No growth was detected in 10 (8.5%) specimens. Two or more anaerobes per specimen were found in 56 (63.6%) of the specimens yielding anaerobes. The incidence of isolation of anaerobes from patients with identified odontogenic sources of infection was 82.2% (60 of 73 cases) and that in patients with other sources of infection was 71.4% (15 of 21, p > 0.20). Conclusion: The start of empirical treatment could influence the frequency or rate of isolation of Fusobacterium species. The involvement of the Bacteroides fragilis group in some head and neck infections should be considered.

Ossifying fibromas are uncommon benign lesion with aggressive local growth. These tumors thought to originate from the periodontal ligament. WHO 2005 classified juvenile ossifying fibroma (JOF) into juvenile psammomatoid ossifying fibroma and juvenile trabecular ossifying fibroma. These tumors must be treated by radical excision to prevent recurrence. We report a case of JOF of psammomatoid pattern in a 12 year old boy, the treatment was radical en bloc resection.

India.) Abstract: Neurofibromas arise from a mixture of cell types including Schwann cells and perineural fibroblasts. They may occur as solitary lesions or in association with neurofibromatosis. Although most commonly reported in soft tissues, neurofibromas do occur in bone. And very few cases have been reported in association with the inferior alveolar nerve. We report a case of neuro-fibroma of spindle cell origin associated with the inferior alveolar nerve in a 22 year old man. Pain or paresthesia may result from lesions of the inferior alveolar nerve. Patients presents with cortical expansion. Intra-osseous lesions may produce a well demarcated or poorly defined unilocular or multilocular radiolucency. Adjacent soft tissue neurofibromas may produce cortical erosion. Solitary neurofibromas and those found in association with neurofibromatosis share the same microscopic features 1 . The tumor is composed of spindle-shaped cells with fusiform or wavy nuclei in a delicate

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) is a rare infection of the facial planes and it is less common in head and neck, because of the rarity and higher vascularity in the region. We report a case of necrotizing fasciitis in a 67- year-old man, arising from a dental infection treated successfully by early diagnosis, prompt surgical management, antibiotic therapy and adjunctive hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) therapy. It is associated with a high mortality and results in severe disfigurement of the face, posing challenging reconstructive problems. The authors present their experience on the comprehensive management of NF of face

The plasmodial surface anion channel (PSAC) is an unusual small-conductance ion channel induced on erythrocytes infected with plasmodia, including parasites responsible for human malaria. Although broadly available inhibitors produce microscopic clearance of parasite cultures at high concentrations and suggest that PSAC is an antimalarial target, they have low affinity for the channel and may interfere with other parasite activities. To address these concerns, we developed a miniaturized assay for PSAC activity and carried out a high-throughput inhibitor screen. Approximately 70,000 compounds from synthetic and natural product libraries were screened, revealing inhibitors from multiple structural classes including two novel and potent heterocyclic scaffolds. Single-channel patch-clamp studies indicated that these compounds act directly on PSAC, further implicating a proposed role in transport of diverse solutes. A statistically significant correlation between channel inhibition and in vitro parasite killing by a family of compounds provided chemical validation of PSAC as a drug target. These new inhibitors should be important research tools and may be starting points for much-needed antimalarial drugs.

Human erythrocytes infected with the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum have increased permeabilities to many solutes. The plasmodial surface anion channel (PSAC) may mediate these changes. Despite good understanding of the biochemical and biophysical properties, the genetic basis of PSAC activity remains unknown. Functional polymorphisms in laboratory isolates and two mutants generated by in vitro selection implicate a parasite-encoded channel, although parasite-induced modifications of endogenous channels have not been formally excluded. Here, we identified stable differences in furosemide efficacy against PSAC activity induced by HB3 and 3D7A parasites. This difference was apparent in both single PSAC patch-clamp recordings and in sorbitol-mediated osmotic lysis measurements, confirming that Cl(-) and sorbitol are transported by a single-channel type. Examination of 19 progeny from a genetic cross between HB3 and 3D7A revealed complex inheritance with some cloned progeny exhibiting furosemide affinities outside the range of parental values. Isolates generated by selfing of the 3D7A clone also exhibited altered furosemide affinities, implicating changes in one or more alleles during meiosis or passage through a primate host. PSAC may be encoded by multiple parasite genes (e.g. a multi-gene family or multiple genes that encode distinct channel subunits) or a single polymorphic gene under strong selective pressure.

International audience; The altered permeability characteristics of erythrocytes infected with malaria parasites have been a source of interest for over 30 years. Recent electrophysiological studies have provided strong evidence that these changes reflect transmembrane transport through ion channels in the host erythrocyte plasma membrane. However, conflicting results and differing interpretations of the data have led to confusion in this field. In an effort to unravel these issues, the groups involved recently came together for a week of discussion and experimentation. In this article, the various models for altered transport are reviewed, together with the areas of consensus in the field and those that require a better understanding.