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The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of fatigue and its related factors in patients with epilepsy and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. From January 2017 to January 2018, a descriptive cross-sectional research study was conducted among adult (aged over 18) patients with epilepsy in the neurology clinic of a university-affiliated hospital in Tehran, Iran. The Fatigue Severity Scale was used to determine the prevalence of fatigue, and the relationships between fatigue, demographic characteristics, and clinical properties were evaluated. During the study period, 100 patients were included, comprising 70 (70%) patients diagnosed with epileptic seizures and 30 (30%) with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Fatigue affected 24 patients (34%) out of 70 individuals with epileptic seizures and six patients (20%) out of 30 patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. There was no statistically significant relationship between the incidence of fatigue and age, gender, level of education, occupation, age at the onset of the seizures, duration of the disease, and time since the last seizure. However, fatigue was significantly correlated with the demographic variable of being unmarried (p = 0.007). Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between fatigue and taking carbamazepine and levetiracetam (p = 0.001). Our study revealed that fatigue was a prevalent problem (30%) in patients with epilepsy and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Moreover, fatigue was correlated with marital status and the consumption of carbamazepine and levetiracetam.

Purpose Previous studies suggested the possible role of autonomic dysfunction in sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). The aim of this study is to assess the interictal ECG alternations especially heart rate variability (HRV), as a marker of autonomic dysfunction, in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy and determine the effect of epilepsy type and duration, seizure frequency and anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) on ECG findings. Methods In this comparative cross-sectional study, the interictal ECG parameters of 64 consecutive patients with drug-resistant epilepsy and the same number of age and sex-matched controls were analyzed. Epilepsy type and duration, seizure frequency, MRI findings and patients’ anti-convulsive medications were determined. Results Our study showed significant longer mean PR interval, shorter mean QRS duration, shorter mean QTc interval and longer corrected QT interval dispersion (QTcd) in patients with epilepsy compared to healthy subjects. The analysis of RR intervals revealed reduced RR standard deviation (SDNN), which is a marker of reduced HRV. A positive linear correlation was found between QRS duration and epilepsy duration. No significant correlation was found between taking a certain kind of AED, and ECG alternations, except for mild QTcd prolongation in patients taking valproate. Conclusion Our study showed clinically important alternations in interictal ECG parameters in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy which could result in sudden cardiac death.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is considered as a potential risk factor for the development of seizure due to neurodegeneration and imbalance between stimulatory and inhibitory circuits in the brain. Seizure could occur in any point during the course of AD, and its presentation varies from fluctuation in cognitive domains to more typical seizures. The clinical diagnosis of seizure in patients with dementia may be challenging due to difficulty in history taking and clinical assessment. No paraclinic methods other than electroencephalogram (EEG) could provide arguments for the diagnosis of AD-related seizures (neither imaging modalities nor cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers). Standard 30-minute EEG may not be sufficiently sensitive to detect epileptiform discharges. In the present study, we aim to review different aspects of seizure in AD, including seizure prevalence, risk factors, underlying mechanisms, electroencephalographic findings, clinical presentations, impact of seizures on AD, and treatment options.

Purpose There has been increasing interest in the use of different biomarkers to help distinguish psychogenic from epileptic seizures, in patients presenting acutely with seizure-like events. In the present study, we measured serum glial fibrillary astrocytic protein (GFAP) levels in patients presenting with such events who were subsequently diagnosed as epileptic seizures (ESs) or psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNESs) and compared GFAP levels obtained with those found in healthy subjects. Methods Sixty-three patients with seizures (43 with ES and 20 with PNES), and 19 healthy subjects participated in the study. Venous blood samples were obtained within the first 6 h after seizures and serum GFAP levels were measured by protein quantification (ELIZA kit) with an electrochemical luminescence immunoassay. Results Serum GFAP levels were significantly higher in patients with ES compared to PNES or healthy controls. A cut-off point of 2.71 ng/ml was found optimally to differentiate ES from PNES (sensitivity 72%, specificity 59%). Conclusion Our study suggests that post-seizure serum GFAP levels could be used in future studies better to understand the underlying mechanism of seizures and may offer as an adjunctive diagnostic test in differentiating ES from PNES.

We reviewed a large surgical cohort to investigate the clinical manifestations, EEG and neuroimaging findings, and postoperative seizure outcome in patients with drug-resistant parietal lobe epilepsy (PLE). All drug-resistant PLE patients, who were investigated for epilepsy surgery at Jefferson Comprehensive Epilepsy Center between 1986 and 2015, were identified. Demographic data, seizure data, EEG recordings, brain MRI, pathological findings, and postsurgical seizure outcome were reviewed. In total, 18 patients (11 males and seven females) were identified. Sixteen patients (88%) had tonic-clonic seizures, 12 (66%) had focal seizures with impaired awareness, and 13 (72%) described auras. Among 15 patients who had brain MRI, 14 patients (93%) had parietal lobe lesions. Only three of 15 patients (20%) who had interictal scalp EEG recordings showed parietal interictal spikes. Of 12 patients with available ictal surface EEG recordings, only three patients (25%) had parietal ictal EEG onset. After a mean follow-up duration of 8.6 years, 14 patients (77.7%) showed a favourable postoperative seizure outcome. In patients with PLE, semiology and EEG may be misleading and brain MRI is the most valuable tool to localize the epileptogenic zone. Postsurgical seizure outcome was favourable in our patients with drug-resistant parietal lobe epilepsy.

Purpose. In this study, the frequency of interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs) in patients with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was measured to determine its correlation with epilepsy duration, seizure frequency, brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, and recent occurrence of focal to bilateral tonic clonic seizures (FBTCS). Methods. Our study was performed on TLE patients, who admitted to epilepsy monitoring unit of Loghman-Hakim hospital, Tehran, from 2016 to 2018. The patients’ IEDs frequency were measured from their scalp EEG recording during no–rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. The IEDs frequency was classified into 3 groups of rare, occasional, and frequent. Results. A total of 142 patients, with the mean age of 33.95 ± 12.73 years, were included in the study. The patients’ mean epilepsy duration was 17.27 ± 12.19 years and the mean seizure frequency was 10.56 ± 12.95 attacks per month. The mean IEDs frequency was 123.48 ± 513.01 per hour. Thirty-five (24.6%) patients had history of FBTCS in the past year. Our findings revealed no significant association between IEDs frequency with epilepsy duration ( P = .22), the recent occurrence of FBTCS ( P = .42), and the type of MRI abnormalities ( P = .66). There was only a weak positive correlation between seizure frequency and interictal spike density ( r = 0.2, P = .007). Conclusions. In patients with TLE, standard EEG recording may not be a reliable method to predict the probability of occurring future seizures.

Purpose On May 8, 2018, the United States announced that it was withdrawing from the Iran nuclear deal. This has resulted in reimposition of the economic hardship on Iran. We investigated the patients' perceptions of hardship in obtaining their antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) after the reimposition of sanctions. Methods We surveyed patients with epilepsy visiting three centers in Iran on February 2nd to 6th (easy sampling) on their perceptions on two issues: 1. What has been your experience on obtaining your AEDs in the past six months? 2. Have you experienced any changes in your seizure control in the past six months? Results Two hundred and forty-four patients participated. Ninety-two patients (37.7%) claimed that they have had significant difficulty obtaining their AEDs, and 37 patients (15.2%) said that their AED(s) was not accessible. Ninety-six people (72%) of those receiving imported AEDs and 33 patients (30%) of those receiving homemade AEDs had significant hardship obtaining their drugs (p = 0.00001). Forty-seven patients (36%) of those who reported significant hardship obtaining their AEDs and 25 (22%) of those who did not, perceived worsening of their seizures (p = 0.017). Conclusion Sanctions have affected ordinary people, especially those who are vulnerable the most (i.e., patients), significantly.

Purpose Cooccurrence of a seizure in a patient with multiple sclerosis (MS) may complicate the management process. Questions, which may complicate the management process of a patient with MS and seizure, include “how should we approach to the patient”, “how should we treat the patient”, “how should we modify the patient's MS treatment strategy”, etc. Methods We searched the electronic database PubMed on March 30, 2018 for articles in English that included the following search terms: “epilepsy” AND “multiple sclerosis” or “seizure” AND “multiple sclerosis” since 2013, to obtain the best recent relevant scientific evidence on the topic. A working group of 6 epilepsy and 5 MS experts took part in two consensus workshops in Tehran, Iran, in 2018. The final consensus manuscript was prepared and approved by all participants. Results The search with words “seizure” and “multiple sclerosis” yielded 121 entries; 10 were relevant to the topic. The search with words “epilepsy” and “multiple sclerosis” yielded 400 entries; 7 were relevant to the topic. We reviewed these 17 articles and also some other references, derived from these articles or relevant to the topic, for the purpose of our review. Conclusion Cooccurrence of a seizure in a patient with MS may complicate the management process. In this review, we tried to provide answers to the frequently asked questions, considering the best available scientific evidence and expert opinion.

Purpose To investigate the opinions of physicians on the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in patients with epilepsy (PWE) worldwide. Methods Online survey addressed to neurologists and psychiatrists from different countries. Results Totally, 1112 physicians from 25 countries (different world region: Europe, North America, South America, Middle-East, Africa, Former Soviet Union Republics) participated; 804 (72.3%) believed that CAM might be helpful in PWE. The most commonly endorsed CAM included meditation (41%) and yoga (39%). Female sex, psychiatry specialization, and working in North and South America were associated with the belief that CAM is helpful in PWE. Two-hundred and forty five out of 1098 participants (22.3%) used/prescribed CAM to PWE; among them, 174 (71%) people perceived CAM to be less effective and 114 (46.5%) people found CAM to be safer than conventional antiseizure medications (ASMs). The most common reasons to prescribe CAM for PWE were: to satisfy the patient (49.9%), dissatisfaction with the efficacy (35.6%), and dissatisfaction with the adverse effects (31.2%) of conventional therapies. Conclusion Although the evidence supporting the use of CAM for the treatment of epilepsy is extremely sparse, most physicians worldwide believe that it could be integrated with the use of conventional ASMs, at least in some patients. High-quality controlled trials are warranted to provide robust evidence on the usefulness of CAM options in PWE.

Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most important diseases of the central nervous system and one of the main causes of disability in young and middle age groups. Recent studies show that the risk of osteoporosis and osteopenia in MS patients is higher than the normal population which could be related to many factors. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of osteopenia and osteoporosis among MS patients.Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was performed on 30 patients with MS. Bone density of patients was assessed by bone mineral density (BMD) method. Necessary demographic and clinical information were collected by a checklist and then analyzed by statistical methods in SPSS version 16.Results: Of all patients, 36.7% had osteoporosis and osteopenia. According to the results, 86.6% of patients had a decrease in bone density in the pelvic region and 50% in the lumbar spine. 43.3% of patients had osteopenia in the pelvic region and 36.7% in the lumbar spine.Conclusions: The results showed that BMD was high in MS patients. Due to the problems of walking and lack of balance in these patients and the high probability of falling and fractures among them, paying attention to the problem of osteoporosis by early and repeated performing of BMD.

SummaryObjectives We investigated the prevalence of post–epilepsy surgery psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES) in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy and the possible influence of risk factors on these seizures. Methods In this retrospective study, we examined data from all patients with a clinical diagnosis of drug-resistant epilepsy who underwent epilepsy surgery at Graduate Hospital and the Jefferson Comprehensive Epilepsy Center between 1986 and 2016. Postsurgical outcome was identified for up to 15 years after surgery. Diagnosis of PNES was verified in the epilepsy monitoring unit with video–electroencephalography (EEG) ictal recording. Potential associated factors were assessed by comparing patients with or without postoperative PNES. Results A total of 1,105 patients were studied; 697 patients had postoperative seizures, and, of these, 27 patients (3.9%) had documented PNES after surgery. A full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ)

Objective The aim of this research was to investigate the hypothesized association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and idiopathic Parkinson's disease (IPD). Methods In the present cross-sectional study, we investigated T. gondii seropositivity in IPD patients in comparison with patients suffering from other neurological diseases (excluding movement disorders) and healthy people. Initially, all participants underwent a thorough clinical and paraclinical investigation. After this, 5 mL of blood was taken from all participants, and sera were tested for immunoglobulin M and immunoglobulin G (IgG) anti-toxoplasma antibodies. Results A total of 41 IPD patients, 69 patients with other neurological diseases (excluding movement disorders) comprising 40 stroke patients, 10 epilepsy patients, 10 Alzheimer's disease patients and nine with chronic headaches, and 40 healthy people were investigated. All participants were matched in regard to sex, age and socioeconomic status. The frequency of anti-toxoplasmosis seropositivity and the levels of IgG antibodies were significantly higher in the IPD patients (82.5%), in comparison with healthy participants (65%) and patients with neurological disease (65.2%; P = 0.01). Conclusion The present findings support the hypothesis of a probable association between T. gondii infection and IPD.

Purpose We analyzed a series of patients with ictal pain to estimate its occurrence and characterize the underlying etiologies. Methods We retrospectively reviewed all the long-term video-EEG reports from Jefferson Comprehensive Epilepsy Center over a 12-year period (2004–2015) for the occurrence of the term “pain” in the text body. All the extracted reports were reviewed, and patients with at least one documented episode of ictal pain in the epilepsy monitoring unit (EMU) were included in the study. Results During the study period, 5133 patients were investigated in our EMU. Forty-six patients (0.9%) had at least one documented episode of ictal pain. Twenty-four patients (0.5%) had psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES), 10 patients (0.2%) had epilepsy, 11 patients (0.2%) had migraine, and one woman had a cardiac problem. Pain location was in the upper or lower extremities (with or without other locations) in 80% of the patients with epilepsy, 33% of the patients with PNES (p = 0.01), and none of the patients with migraine. Conclusion Ictal pain is a rare finding among patients evaluated in EMUs. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures are the most common cause, but ictal pain is not specific for this diagnosis. Location of the ictal pain in a limb may help differentiate an epileptic cause from others.

We investigated the voltage topography of interictal spikes in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) to see whether topography was related to etiology for TLE. Adults with TLE, who had epilepsy surgery for drug-resistant seizures from 2011 until 2014 at Jefferson Comprehensive Epilepsy Center were selected. Two groups of patients were studied: patients with mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS) on MRI and those with other MRI findings. The voltage topography maps of the interictal spikes at the peak were created using BESA software. We classified the interictal spikes as polar, basal, lateral, or others. Thirty-four patients were studied, from which the characteristics of 340 spikes were investigated. The most common type of spike orientation was others (186 spikes; 54.7%), followed by lateral (146; 42.9%), polar (5; 1.5%), and basal (3; 0.9%). Characteristics of the voltage topography maps of the spikes between the two groups of patients were somewhat different. Five spikes in patients with MTS had polar orientation, but none of the spikes in patients with other MRI findings had polar orientation (odds ratio=6.98, 95% confidence interval=0.38 to 127.38; p=0.07). Scalp topographic mapping of interictal spikes has the potential to offer different information than visual inspection alone. The present results do not allow an immediate clinical application of our findings; however, detecting a polar spike in a patient with TLE may increase the possibility of mesial temporal sclerosis as the underlying etiology.

Objective Thalamofrontal cortical network and limbic system are proposed to be involved in psychogenic nonepileptic seizure (PNES) and idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE). This study aimed to investigate neurochemical changes in prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and limbic circuits in patients with PNES and IGE. We also analyzed the interaction between cognitive functions and neurochemical changes in both groups. Methods Hydrogen proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) was used to measure N-acetyl aspartate (NAA), choline (Cho), creatine (Cr), glutamate–glutamine (Glx), and myo-inositol (MI). The voxels were placed on the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and thalamus. Attention and inhibitory control, as well as general intelligence status, were investigated using the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA-CPT) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), respectively, in patients with PNES and IGE, as well as healthy volunteers. Results The 1H-MRS showed a decreased ratio of NAA/Cr in the right and left thalamus, right DMPFC, and right ACC in patients with IGE and PNES. Furthermore, a decrease of the NAA/Cr ratio in the left DMPFC and an increase of NAA/Cr ratio in the right DLPFC were observed in patients with PNES compared with the controls. The patient groups had a decreased ratio of Cho/Cr in right ACC compared with the healthy subjects. Moreover, the NAA/Cr ratio in the left thalamus and left DMPFC was correlated with seizure frequency in patient groups. Reduced NAA/Cr ratio in the right ACC and left DLPFC were also correlated with poor IVA-CPT scores. Conclusion This study highlighted the dysfunction in prefrontal-thalamic–limbic circuits and impairment in neurocognition in patients with PNES and IGE.

To assess the value of postictal serum Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase (UCHL-1), a neuronal biomarker, and S100-B, a glial biomarker, levels, in differentiate epileptic seizures (ES) form psychogenic attacks.In this analytical cross-sectional study, serum UCHL-1 and S100-B levels were measured within six hours of occurring seizure, in 43 patients with ES, 20 patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) and 19 healthy individuals by electrochemiluminescence immunoassay.Both serum UCHL-1 and S100-B levels were significantly higher in patients with ES than PNES (P 0.05) and controls (P 0.01). PNES patients had significantly higher serum S100-B levels compared to controls (P 0.01). There was a significant correlation between the serum UCHL-1 and S100-B levels in patients with ES (r = 0.46, P = 0.002).Our study showed that serum UCHL-1 level could be potentially used in differentiate ES from PNES (sensitivity 72%, specificity 59%). Serum S100-B level had lower value compared to UCHL-1 (AUC 0.68 for UCHL-1 v/s 0.59 for S100B). Post-seizure serum UCHL-1 and S100-B levels could be used in future studies to better understand the underlying mechanism of seizures and may offer as an adjunctive diagnostic test in differentiate ES from PNES.

To determine the effect of different seizure characteristics on the occurrence of postictal generalized EEG suppression (PGES). PGES is considered as a potential risk factor of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) by several studies.In this retrospective cross-sectional study, episodes of generalized convulsive seizures (GCS) were reviewed in regard to state at seizure-onset, the seizure and tonic phase durations, postictal immobility (PI) duration and whether the patient received oxygen (O2) mask during the post-ictal phase. Moreover, the presence and duration of PGES was determined for each seizure.Among 98 episodes of GCSs, 56 (57.1%) had PGES and 42 (42.9%) did not have PGES. The mean seizure duration for attacks with and without PGES was 106.62 ± 97.04 and 104.85 ± 91.81 s, respectively (P 0.05). The tonic phase duration was significantly longer in PGES positive compared to PGES negative seizures (4.25 ± 3.17 s vs. 2.82 ± 3.58 s, P 0.05). Early O2 mask administration and state of wakefulness at seizure-onset did not show any significant correlation with the presence of PGES (P 0.05). Seizures with PGES had higher PI duration than those without PGES (156.24 s vs. 124.73 s) (P 0.05). Interestingly, in seizures with PGES, there was a positive correlation between PI and tonic phase durations (r: 0.4, P 0.05).According to our findings, higher tonic phase duration and longer PI period increased the odds of PGES formation.

Objective: The present study aimed to assess the effectiveness of oral citalopram, compared with fluoxetine and a placebo, in patients with post-stroke motor disabilities. Design: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted between January 2015 and January 2016. Setting: The neurology department of a university-affiliated urban hospital in Tehran, Iran. Subjects: Ninety adult patients with acute ischemic stroke, hemiplegia, or hemiparesis and a Fugl-Meyer Motor Scale score of below 55 were included. Interventions: Participants were randomly allocated to one of three groups: Group A received 20 mg PO of fluoxetine daily, Group B received 20 mg PO of citalopram daily, and Group C received a placebo PO The duration of the therapy was 90 days. In addition to the medications, all of the participants received physiotherapy. Main measures: Functional status at 90 days, which was measured by the Fugl-Meyer Motor Scale score. Results: The initial mean (SD) Fugl-Meyer Motor Scale scores for the placebo, fluoxetine, and citalopram groups were 18.2 (11.42), 20.08 (14.53), and 17.07 (14.92), respectively. After 90 days, the scores were 27.96 (18.71) for the placebo group, 52.42 (26.24) for the fluoxetine group, and 50.89 (27.17) for the citalopram group. Compared with the placebo group, the mean Fugl-Meyer Motor Scale scores showed significant increases in the fluoxetine and citalopram groups ( P = 0.001). Conclusion: There was no significant difference between citalopram and fluoxetine in facilitating post-stroke motor recovery in ischemic stroke patients. However, compared with a placebo, both drugs improved post-stroke motor function.

Purpose Ictal verbal help-seeking has never been systematically studied before. In this study, we evaluated a series of patients with ictal verbal help-seeking to characterize its frequency and underlying etiology. Methods We retrospectively reviewed all the long-term video-EEG reports from Jefferson Comprehensive Epilepsy Center over a 12-year period (2004–2015) for the occurrence of the term “help” in the text body. All the extracted reports were reviewed and patients with at least one episode of documented ictal verbal help-seeking in epilepsy monitoring unit (EMU) were studied. For each patient, the data were reviewed from the electronic medical records, EMU report, and neuroimaging records. Results During the study period, 5133 patients were investigated in our EMU. Twelve patients (0.23%) had at least one episode of documented ictal verbal help-seeking. Nine patients (six women and three men) had epilepsy and three patients (two women and one man) had psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES). Seven out of nine patients with epilepsy had temporal lobe epilepsy; six patients had right temporal lobe epilepsy. Conclusion Ictal verbal help-seeking is a rare finding among patients evaluated in epilepsy monitoring units. Ictal verbal help-seeking may suggest that seizures arise in or propagate to the right temporal lobe.

This study aimed to evaluate the attention and inhibitory control functions in patients with genetic generalized epilepsy (GGE) and psychogenic nonepileptic seizure (PNES) and compare the results with the healthy control subjects. A total of 30 patients with GGE, 30 patients with PNES, and 32 healthy control subjects were included in the study. The severity of attention and inhibitory control deficit, general intelligence status, and psychopathology screening in all subjects were respectively investigated with the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA-CPT), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), and the Symptoms Checklist 90-revised (SCL-90-R). Patients with PNES had severe impairments in all performed tasks compared with the control group and the group with GGE (p 0.01), whereas patients with GGE had significantly lower attention quotient versus healthy subjects (p 0.01). The full-scale attention quotient (FSAQ) and full-scale response control quotient (FSRCQ) in patients with PNES were significantly lower in comparison with GGE (47.83 ± 32.68, 60.18 ± 35.35, p 0.01), respectively. Multiple regression analysis did not demonstrate any significant effect of seizure frequency or epilepsy duration on attention and inhibitory control deficits, but patient's intelligence quotient (IQ) showed a significant effect on FSAQ and FSRCQ (β: 0.997, p 0.001; β: 0.933, p 0.001, respectively). Attention and inhibitory control are significantly impaired in patients with GGE and PNES. The cognitive deficits in patients with GGE and PNES have potentially important clinical implications in planning their neuropsychological rehabilitation.

Purpose The present study aimed to compare the serum LTG levels during the early-/mid-follicular (low estradiol) and mid-luteal (high estradiol) phases of the physiologic menstrual cycle. Method In a cross-sectional study, 20 women with epilepsy were recruited. Participants had been on monotherapy with LTG for at least two months. All the subjects had normal menstrual cycles. Blood samples for each patient were taken whilst fasting during the early-/mid-follicular (Days 3–5) and mid-luteal phases (Days 20–24). All samples were analyzed in batched assays. A comparison of the serum LTG levels was carried out using the Mann–Whitney U test Data were analyzed with the SPSS program, version 16 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL), p -values below 0.05 were considered significant. Results The mean serum LTG levels for the early-/mid-follicular and mid-luteal phases were 4.28±2.76mg/ml (SD) and 3.86±2.06mg/ml (SD), respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in serum LTG level between the (low estradiol) early-/mid-follicular and (high estradiol) mid-luteal phases in our patients ( p -value=0.23). Conclusion The serum level of LTG does not alter significantly during the menstrual cycle.

Objective: To develop a novel software method (AR2) for reducing muscle contamination of ictal scalp electroencephalogram (EEG), and validate this method on the basis of its performance in comparison to a commercially available software method (AR1) to accurately depict seizure-onset location. Methods: A blinded investigation used 23 EEG recordings of seizures from 8 patients. Each recording was uninterpretable with digital filtering because of muscle artifact and processed using AR1 and AR2 and reviewed by 26 EEG specialists. EEG readers assessed seizure-onset time, lateralization, and region, and specified confidence for each determination. The two methods were validated on the basis of the number of readers able to render assignments, confidence, the intra-class correlation (ICC), and agreement with other clinical findings. Results: Among the 23 seizures, two-thirds of the readers were able to delineate seizure-onset time in 10 of 23 using AR1, and 15 of 23 using AR2 (p Conclusions: EEG artifact reduction methods for localizing seizure-onset does not result in high rates of interpretability, reader confidence, and inter-reader agreement. However, the assignments by groups of readers are often congruent with other clinical data. Utilization of the AR2 software method may improve the validity of ictal EEG artifact reduction.

Background: Migraine affects about 16% of the worldwide population. The pathogenesis of the disease consists of a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Given that, according to different polymorphism studies, ethnicity has a role in the gene diversity of migraine, this study was designed to determine the role of MTHFR C677T gene polymorphism in people from Tehran, Iran, who suffer from migraine headaches. Materials and methods: In this case control study, we determined the prevalence of common MTHFR C677T polymorphism in 132 migraine patients in line with IHS criteria (37 migraine patients with aura and 95 migraine patients without aura) and compared it to that in 142 matched healthy controls. The correlation between migraine and genotype was investigated using the chi-square test. The Bonferroni adjusted P-value was also used for pairwise comparison. Results: Our findings demonstrated that there was no significant difference in the frequencies of the TT genotype or T allele distributions between the migraine patients with aura and the control subjects. On the other hand, the frequency of the TT genotype among migraine patients without aura was significantly lower than those in the control group or the patients with aura group. Conclusion: MTHFR C677T polymorphism, which is responsible for reducing MTHFR activity in the folate metabolism, is not a major genetic susceptibility factor for migraine in the investigated population.

Aim: To evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of MLC601 in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease (AD). Study Design: This is an open-label pilot study. Place and Duration of Study: It was conducted at three university referral centres in Iran from September 2009 until November 2011. Methodology: One-hundred and twenty four outpatients with mild to moderate AD who had previously failed to tolerate or benefit from treatment with Rivastigmine for 6 months at a dose of 2 to 12 mg per day were switched to a MLC601 regimen of one capsule three times per day for up to 18 months. Outcome measures included adverse events (AEs), withdrawal rate, and changes in the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the cognitive subscale of the AD Assessment Scale (ADAS-cog) relative to baseline measurements. Research Article British Journal of Medicine & Medical Research, 3(2): 341-350, 2013 342 Results: Two patients were lost to follow up, and 122 patients completed the 18-month trial. The mean age of the participants was 65.3±6.4 years (range 54-82), and 77 (63.1%) of the participants were female. Improved cognitive function was observed in the first 6 months of the regimen (ADAS-cog=-3.1±10.1; MMSE=1.2±3.0), and the stabilisation of cognitive decline was observed over the remaining 12 months (ADAScog=-1.6±7.6; MMSE=0.8±4.2). AEs were predominantly gastrointestinal and occurred in 7.3% of patients. Conclusions: MLC601 showed good tolerability and promising effects on cognitive function in AD patients during 18 months of treatment.

Artificial neural networks (ANN) have not been used in chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) outcome prediction following surgery. We used two methods, namely logistic regression and ANN, to predict using eight variables CSDH outcome as assessed by the Glasgow outcome score (GOS) at discharge. We had 300 patients (213 men and 87 women) and potential predictors were age, sex, midline shift, intracranial air, hematoma density, hematoma thickness, brain atrophy, and Glasgow coma score (GCS). The dataset was randomly divided to three subsets: (1) training set (150 cases), (2) validation set (75 cases), and (3) test set (75 cases). The training and validation sets were combined for regression analysis. Patients aged 56.5 +/- 18.1 years and 228 (76.0%) of them had a favorable outcome. The prevalence of brain atrophy, intracranial air, midline shift, low GCS, thick hematoma, and hyperdense hematoma was 142 (47.3%), 156 (52.0%), 177 (59.0%), 82 (27.3%), 135 (45.0%), and 52 (17.3%), respectively. The regression model did not show an acceptable performance on the test set (area under the curve (AUC) = 0.594; 95% CI, 0.435-0.754; p = 0.250). It had a sensitivity of 69% and a specificity of 46%, and correctly classified 50.7% of cases. A four-layer 8-3-4-1 feedforward backpropagation ANN was then developed and trained. The ANN showed a remarkably superior performance compared to the regression model (AUC = 0.767; 95% CI, 0.652-0.882; p = 0.001). It had a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 68%, and correctly classified 218 (72.7%) cases. Considering that GOS strongly correlates with the risk of recurrence, the ANN model can also be used to predict the recurrence of CSDH.

Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) is a potentially lifethreatening condition. It may lead to a considerable mortality if not recognized and treated in a timely manner [1,2]. Nonetheless, Due to its nonspecific clinical presentations, early diagnosis is not always possible. There are several predisposing factors for CVST, of which the most common conditions are hereditary thrombophilia, post-operative states; and use of oral contraceptives [3]. Hereby we report an interesting case of CVST following brain contusion. It is important to always keep a high degree of suspicion for CVST, even when other diagnoses seem more possible.

The object of this study was to determine the relationship between outcome (assessed by Glasgow Outcome Scale) and recurrence in chronic subdural haematoma (CSDH). Eighty-two consecutive patients who underwent surgery for CSDH were included in this study. The relationship between the following variables and CSDH recurrence was studied: sex; age; history of trauma; Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) at the time of admission (stage 1: GCS12, stage 2: GCS: 8 - 12, stage 3: GCS8); interval between head injury (when a history of trauma was present) and surgery; presence of a midline shift on CT scans; presence of intracranial air 7 days after surgery; haematoma density; haematoma width; presence of brain atrophy; and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS, both quantitative and non-quantitative) at the time of discharge. Throughout the analysis, p0.05 was considered statistically significant. The results showed lower GCS (p0.001), higher GOS (p0.001), presence of intracranial air 7 days after surgery (p=0.002), and a high density haematoma (p0.001) were significantly associated with recurrence of CSDH. It was concluded that GOS is related with recurrence in CSDH.

A 75-year-old right-handed man was admitted to our emergency department complaining of recurrent episodes of involuntary ‘barking' within the past 12h. The episodes had occurred after an initial two-minute attack from sleep involving tonic contraction of the upper extremities and jaw locking. By the time of admission, the patient had had a total of at least 7–10 ‘barking' episodes, each lasting 30–45s. Seven months prior to his current admission, the patient had had a minor ischemic stroke causing mild left paresis, which had resolved completely. His awake EEG revealed a normal background pattern interrupted by runs of two per second slow waves mixed with low-voltage spikes in the left temporal lobe with a left mid-temporal emphasis. The patient was diagnosed with recurrent simple partial seizures, and treatment with intravenous valproic acid was initiated. He was discharged four days later without having experienced any further barking episodes. Atypical presentations of the epileptic seizures have been described in the literature, but ictal barking is very rare manifestation of epilepsy.

Background and Purpose— Stroke survivors are at high risk for falling. Identifying physical, clinical, and social factors that predispose stroke patients to falls may reduce further disability and life-threatening complications, and improve overall quality of life. Methods— We used 5 biennial waves (1998–2006) from the Health and Retirement Study to assess risk factors associated with falling accidents and fall-related injuries among stroke survivors. We abstracted demographic data, living status, self-evaluated general health, and comorbid conditions. We analyzed the rate ratio (RR) of falling and the OR of injury within 2 follow-up years using a multivariate random effects model. Results— We identified 1174 stroke survivors (mean age±SD, 74.4±7.2 years; 53% female). The 2-year risks of falling, subsequent injury, and broken hip attributable to fall were 46%, 15%, and 2.1% among the subjects, respectively. Factors associated with an increased frequency of falling were living with spouse as compared to living alone (RR, 1.4), poor general health (RR, 1.1), time from first stroke (RR, 1.2), psychiatric problems (RR, 1.7), urinary incontinence (RR, 1.4), pain (RR, 1.4), motor impairment (RR, 1.2), and past frequency of ≥3 falls (RR, 1.3). Risk factors associated with fall-related injury were female gender (OR, 1.5), poor general health (OR, 1.2), past injury from fall (OR, 3.2), past frequency of ≥3 falls (OR, 3.1), psychiatric problems (OR, 1.4), urinary incontinence (OR, 1.4), impaired hearing (OR, 1.6), pain (OR, 1.8), motor impairment (OR, 1.3), and presence of multiple strokes (OR, 3.2). Conclusions— This study demonstrates the high prevalence of falls and fall-related injuries in stroke survivors, and identifies factors that increase the risk. Modifying these factors may prevent falls, which could lead to improved quality of life and less caregiver burden and cost in this population.

Background Few studies of the effect of heart failure (HF) on stroke outcomes have been published. This study was designed to determine the association of co-existing HF with in-hospital length-of-stay (LOS), cost, and mortality among acute stroke patients admitted to hospitals in the United States (US). Methods and Results All patients with a primary diagnosis of stroke admitted to the US hospitals in calendar years 1995 and 2005 were extracted using the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database. Patients were categorized based on a secondary diagnosis of HF. Patients' demographics, LOS, in-hospital death, disposition, and hospitalization costs were determined. The odds ratio of in-hospital mortality rates for stroke patients with HF were 2.5 (95% CI: 2.4–2.7) and 2.2 (95% CI: 2.0–2.3) in 1995 and 2005, respectively, compared to those without HF. Stroke patients with HF also stayed longer in the hospital in both years studied, though a general decline in LOS was observed in 2005. The estimated increase in total hospitalization cost for stroke patients with HF was $1,100 (20% difference, 95% CI: 18%–23%) and $1,300 (18% difference, 95% CI: 16%–20%) for 1995 and 2005, respectively. Conclusions The results of our study suggest that there is an association between co-existing HF and mortality in stroke patients. Stroke patients with HF appear to have a higher mortality rate, longer LOS, and higher hospitalization cost compared to those without HF. The mechanism of higher stroke mortality and morbidity in patients with HF requires further investigation to identify modifiable factors and to tailor better treatment options.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic subdura) hematoma (CSDH) is one of the most common types of intracranial hemorrhage, especially in the elderly, with a significant recurrence rate ranging from 9.2 to 26.5%, The role of postoperative patient posture in the recurrence of CSDH has not been studied sufficiently. METHODS: A total of 84 consecutive patients with unilateral traumatic CSDH without known risk factors of CSDH recurrence were prospectively enrolled in this study. All patients underwent burr-hole surgery with closed system drainage and were then allocated randomly to either of two groups: Group A (n = 42) patierifswere'keptin a supine position for 3 days after the operation, whereas Group B (n = 42) patients assumed sifting position in bed, with the head of the bed elevated to 30 to 40 degrees, for the same duration as Group A After 3 days, there was no restriction in patients' activities in both groups. All patients were followed-up for at least 3 months after surgery. bath RESULTS: The groups were not significantly different in age, sex, presence of brain atrophy or hydrocephalus, preoperative hematoma width, and postsurgery subdural space width. The recurrence rate in Groups A and B were 2.3 and 19.0% (necessitating repeat surgery in one patient), respectively (P = 0.02). Other complications in Groups A and B, respectively, were atelectasis (10 versus seven; P = 0.41), pneumonia (five versus four; P = 0.72), decubitus ulcer (three versus two; P = 0.64), and deep vein thrombosis (zero versus one; P = 0.31). CONCLUSION: Assuming an upright posture soon after burr-hole surgery was associated with a significantly increased incidence of CSDH recurrence but not with a significant change in other position-related postsurgical complications. According to this result, it is not recommended that elderly patients assume an upright posture soon after burr-hole surgery to prevent postoperative atelectasis and dementia, as these might significantly increase the risk of CSDH recurrence.

Iran is an endemic country for tuberculosis (TB). After the eradication and efficient control of some priority infectious diseases such as polio and measles TB has now turned into a major public health problem in Iran. Cervical lymphadenitis is the most common form of extrapulmonary TB accounting for 30-40% of TB cases and fine needle aspiration (FNA) is widely accepted as the first diagnostic modality of choice in this entity especially in countries where mycobacterial infection is endemic. FNA is easy safe rapid and noninvasive compared to excisional biopsy which is usually considered the second choice. It is readily available in most centres and can safely be performed in outpatient departments. The diagnostic accuracy of FNA for tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis varies considerably among different studies with a reported sensitivity of 25-100%. This variation might be due to differences in geographical location and endemicity expertise of the clinician and pathologist and the time lapsed before the lymphadenopathy comes to the patients attention. Recently we became aware of several small informal reports from different regions in our country warning about high false negative rates of FNA results and that seemed especially worrying in cases of patients who referred early in the course of their disease. Therefore we opted to assess the issue of FNA sensitivity for (early) tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis in Iran for the first time. (excerpt)

Amphotericin B deoxycholate (ABD) is the best therapeutic agent available for the treatment of most systemic fungal infections. However, some untoward adverse effects such as nephrotoxicity may limit its appropriate therapeutic use. We conducted a randomized, controlled trial ofthe infusion of fat emulsion (Intralipid) shortly after the infusion of ABD to evaluate its effects on reducing ABD-associated nephrotoxicity. Our patient population was made up of 31 patients who were randomized into two groups: an intervention group (n = 16) and a control group (15 patients). There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in demographic or clinical variables. All patients received 1mg/kg/day of ABD in dextrose 5%. In addition, the patients in the intervention arm received Intralipid 10%, which was started as soon as possible within 1 hour after the infusion of ABD. ABD-associated nephrotoxicity was defined as a minimum 50% increase in baseline serum creatinine to a minimum of 2mg/dl. We also measured daily serum creatinine changes during the first 2 weeks of treatment, and we compared some other relevant indices of renal function, as well as ABD-related hypokalemia. We found no statistically significant differences between the two treatments in terms of ABD-associated nephrotoxicity or any of the other indices. We conclude that the administration of Intralipid 10% early after infusion of ABD in dextrose 5% does not have any effect in decreasing ABD-associated nephrotoxicity or hypokalemia.