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© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd., Background: Acute gastroenteritis poses a significant burden on young children, families, health care facilities and societies. Rotavirus is the most common pathogen, but rotavirus infections are vaccine preventable. Information on the epidemiology of gastroenteritis in Icelandic children has until now not been available and rotavirus vaccination is currently not offered to Icelandic infants. The objective of this study was to assess the burden of rotavirus acute gastroenteritis in young children in Iceland and determine the potential benefit of adding rotavirus vaccine to the Icelandic childhood immunization schedule. Methods: For a two-year period, children < 6 years old attending a children’s emergency department for acute gastroenteritis were recruited at the Children’s Hospital in Reykjavík, Iceland. Demographic information and Vesikari scores were registered. Stool samples were analyzed for pathogens. Duration of symptoms, treatment given, and secondary household infections were among the collected information. Annual cost of the infections in young children was estimated based on health care expenditures and lost days of parental work. Results: 325 children were included in the study, 75% of which were 24 months old. A pathogen was identified in 80% of cases, of which rotavirus was identified in 54%. Rotavirus caused a more severe disease than other pathogens, more often leading to fluid treatment in the emergency department and admissions. Median duration of rotavirus-illness was six days and caused a median of four days lost from work by parents. The estimated annual cost of rotavirus acute gastroenteritis was €2.9 million. Conclusions: Rotavirus causes significant disease burden in young children. Although rarely lifethreatening in high income countries, the costs for society are substantial. The inclusion of rotavirus vaccine in the national immunization schedule will reduce the disease burden and would be cost-saving in Iceland., RANNÍS

AIM Vancomycin is frequently used in paediatric hospitals. Data suggest trough levels of 10-20 mg/L are needed to achieve bacterial killing. This study aimed to evaluate if commonly used dosing regimens are efficient in reaching these levels and if therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) was appropriately used. METHODS All children receiving intravenous vancomycin at the Children´s Hospital Iceland between 2012 and 2016 were included. Vancomycin trough levels were registered. Student t test, Wilcoxon test and regression models were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS A total of 105 children received 163 vancomycin treatments (55/105 neonates). Average daily dose in neonates was 23.4 mg/kg/day and 38.4 mg/kg/day for older children. No TDM was done in 58 treatments (35.6%). First trough levels were

Posthemorragic hydrocephalus is a relatively common condition in prematures, often requiring ventriculoperitoneal shunts. We report a case of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt in a premature neonate which failed conventional intravenous treatment. Despite the absence of published guidelines, we used available data and expert advice to treat the patient with intraventricular vancomycin. The treatment was successful in eradicating the infection without observed toxicity. This case highlights the need for international guidelines on intraventricular treatment for neonates.

BACKGROUND: This longitudinal study describes the associations between respiratory viral infections, rhinitis and the prevalence and density of the common nasopharyngeal bacterial colonizers, Streptococcus pneumoniae (Sp), Moraxella catarrhalis (Mc), Haemophilus influenzae (Hi) and Staphylococcus aureus. METHODS: In an observational cohort study, 161 children attending day care centers in Bristol, United Kingdom, were recruited. Monthly nasopharyngeal swabs were taken and stored frozen in Skim-milk, tryptone, glucose and glycerin broth (STGG) broth. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used for detection of respiratory viruses and 4 bacterial species. t tests and logistic regression models were used for analysis. RESULTS: The frequent colonisers, Sp, Mc and Hi were more frequently found at high density in contrast to Staphylococcus aureus although temporally, high-density carriage was short lived. Respiratory viral infections and symptoms of rhinitis were both independently and consistently associated with higher bacterial density with an observed 2-fold increase in density for Sp, Mc and Hi (P = 0.004-0.017). CONCLUSIONS: For Sp and Hi, the association between young age and higher bacterial DNA density was explained by more frequent viral infection and increased nasal discharge, while the associations between some viral specie's and some bacterial species' density appear to be stronger than others. Increased colonization density and rhinitis may promote transmission of these commonly carried organisms.

Background Global death rate in children has been declining during the last decades worldwide, especially in high income countries. This has been attributed to several factors, including improved prenatal and perinatal care, immunisations, infection management as well as progress in diagnosis and treatment of most diseases. However, there is certainly room for further progress. The aim of the current study was to describe the changes in death rates and causes of death in Iceland, a high-income country during almost half a century. Methods The Causes of Death Register at The Directorate of Health was used to identify all children under the age of 18 years in Iceland that died during the study period from January 1st, 1971 until December 31st, 2018. Using Icelandic national identification numbers, individuals could be identified for further information. Hospital records, laboratory results and post-mortem diagnosis could be accessed if cause of death was unclear. Findings Results showed a distinct decrease in death rates in children during the study period that was continuous over the whole period. This was established for almost all causes of death and in all age groups. This reduction was primarily attributed to a decrease in fatal accidents and fewer deaths due to infections, perinatal or congenital disease as well as malignancies, the reduction in death rates from other causes was less distinct. Childhood suicide rates remained constant. Interpretation Our results are encouraging for further prevention of childhood deaths. In addition, our results emphasise the need to improve measures to detect and treat mental and behavioural disorders leading to childhood suicide.

Study objectiveWe aimed to describe the preparedness and response to the COVID-19 pandemic in referral EDs caring for children across Europe.MethodsWe did a cross-sectional point prevalence survey, which was developed and disseminated through the pediatric emergency medicine research networks for Europe (REPEM) and the United Kingdom and Ireland (PERUKI). We included a pre-determined number of centers based on each country population: five to ten EDs for countries with > 20 million inhabitants and one to five EDs for the other countries. ED directors or named delegates completed the survey between March 20th and 21st to report practice in use one month after the outbreak in Northern Italy. We used descriptive statistics to analyse data.ResultsOverall 102 centers from 18 countries completed the survey: 34% did not have an ED contingency plan for pandemics and 36% had never had simulations for such events. Wide variation on PPE items was shown for recommended PPE use at pre-triage and for patient assessment, with 62% of centers experiencing shortage in one or more PPE items. COVID-19 positive ED staff was reported in 25% of centers. Only 17% of EDs had negative pressure isolation rooms.ConclusionWe identified variability and gaps in preparedness and response to the COVID-19 epidemic across European referral EDs for children. Early availability of a documented contingency plan, provision of simulation training, appropriate use of PPE, and appropriate isolation facilities emerged as key factors that should be optimized to improve preparedness and inform responses to future pandemics.

Introduction: Preventing the spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and understanding the pathophysiology and transmission is essential. This study describes an MRSA outbreak ...

Viral infections of the upper respiratory tract may influence the commensal nasopharyngeal bacteria. Changes in the bacterial niche could affect transmission dynamics. Attenuated vaccine viruses can be used to investigate this empirically in humans.To study the effects of mild viral upper respiratory infections on nasopharyngeal bacterial colonization using live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) as a surrogate.We used trivalent LAIV to evaluate the effects of viral infection on bacterial carriage and density of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus influenzae, and Staphylococcus aureus. A total of 151 healthy children were randomized 1:1 to receive the vaccine starting either at recruitment (n = 74) or 28 days later (n = 77) in a stepped wedge fashion, allowing comparisons between recipients and nonrecipients as well as whole-group comparisons pre- and postvaccination. Bacterial carriage and density were determined using quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays.A total of 151 children were recruited, 77 in the LAIV group and 74 in the control group. LAIV recipients (n = 63 analyzed) showed an apparent transient increase in H. influenzae carriage but no further significant differences in carriage prevalence of the four bacterial species compared with controls (n = 72 analyzed). S. pneumoniae density was substantially higher in vaccine recipients (16,687 vs. 1935 gene copies per milliliter) 28 days after the first dose (P 0.001). Whole-group multivariable analysis (prevaccine, after one dose, and after two doses) also showed increases in density of other species and H. influenzae carriage prevalence.In the absence of any safety signals despite widespread use of the vaccine, these findings suggest that bacterial density, and thus transmission rates among children and to people in other age groups, may rise following attenuated influenza infections without associated clinical disease. LAIV could therefore be used as an experimental tool to elucidate the dynamics of transmission of nasopharyngeal bacteria.

Influenza is an important cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in combination with secondary bacterial infections.1–3 Annual influenza vaccination is recommended for everyone at risk by the WHO.4 In recent years, a number of countries have recommended influenza vaccination for all children older than 6 months although the uptake has been variable. The effectiveness of inactivated influenza vaccines in children has been questioned.5 Numerous studies have been published on the subject but outcome measures used vary with some studies using influenza-like-illness while others use culture or PCR-proven influenza, making comparison and meta-analyses difficult. In several randomised clinical trials, live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) has been found safe, effective compared to placebo and consistently more effective than trivalent inactivated vaccine (TIV) in children. In 2012, UK authorities announced plans to offer annual LAIV to all children aged 2–17 years and in July 2013 that a single dose of the vaccine will be offered to all 2-year-olds and 3-year-olds from September 2013. Although the evidence base supporting this decision is robust, some important questions remain unanswered. Such a campaign, if carried out successfully, could significantly reduce the burden of disease in children and, since children are thought to be important in the propagation of infection within the population and thus development of influenza epidemics, this initiative may well impact on disease in other age groups through indirect protection. However, few studies quantifying such effects have been done to date. In this paper, aspects of the implementation of universal childhood influenza vaccination are discussed. Although it is widely believed to be a relatively insignificant infection in childhood, between 10% and 30% of children are infected with influenza during every annual epidemic,6–8 an attack rate higher than any other age group with a rate of complications that is especially high in the …

In this paper we highlight several instances in which there is potential for novel utilization in the near future of relatively recently licenced vaccines, vaccines approaching licensure or vaccines already in established use. Specifically we discuss the potential for universal seasonal influenza immunization and the arrival of live attenuated intranasal vaccine which was licenced for use in children aged 2–17 years in Europe in 2010, the potential use of live oral rotavirus vaccines for infants, two of which have been available in Europe since 2006, pertussis, which despite availability and widespread use throughout Europe of acellular vaccines for many years is causing, if anything, worsening problems in many countries so that novel strategies and solutions are needed and finally endemic meningococcal disease, for which in Europe, conjugate group C vaccines have been in use for 10 years but may now require revised schedules. Novel protein-based vaccines designed to prevent much of this disease caused by the main remaining European serogroup, namely B, are expected to be licenced and available for use imminently.

BACKGROUND: Improved understanding of Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) carriage biology and better methods for detection and quantification would facilitate studies of potential impact of new vaccines on colonization and transmission in adolescents. METHODS: We performed plate cultures on 107 oropharyngeal swabs stored frozen in skim milk tryptone glucose glycerol (STGG) broth and previously positive for Nm. We compared quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) detection of Nm in 601 STGG-swabs with culture. Using qPCR (n = 87), a log-phase broth culture standard curve and semiquantitative plate cultures (n = 68), we measured density of carriage. We compared qPCR genogrouping of DNA extracts from STGG-swabs and from plate culture lawns (n = 110) with purified isolates (n = 80). RESULTS: Swab storage resulted in only 10% loss of culture sensitivity. Direct sodC qPCR Nm detection yielded more positives (87/601, 14.5%) than culture (80/601, 13.3%). Most samples (57/110) positive by culture were also positive by qPCR and vice versa, but discrepancies (single positives) were frequent among low-density samples. sodC qPCR was positive in 79/80 isolates but in only 65 by ctrA qPCR. Density both by culture and qPCR varied across 4 orders of magnitude with the majority being low (1000). Genogrouping qPCRs yielded more positive results when performed on DNA extracts from lawn cultures. CONCLUSIONS: We provide the first description of the distribution of Nm carriage density. This could be important for understanding transmission dynamics and population-level effectiveness of adolescent vaccine programs. Storage of swabs frozen in STGG for batched laboratory analysis facilitates carriage studies and direct sodC qPCR for Nm combined with qPCR genogrouping of lawn culture extracts provides accurate, detailed description of colonization.

Bacterial vaccines can reduce carriage rates. Colonization is usually a binary endpoint. Real time quantitative PCR (qPCR) can quantify bacterial DNA in mucosal samples over a wide range. Using culture and single-gene species-specific qPCRs for Streptococcus pneumoniae (lytA), Streptococcus pyogenes (ntpC), Moraxella catarrhalis (ompJ), Haemophilus influenzae (hdp) and Staphylococcus aureus (nuc) and standard curves against log-phase reference strain broth cultures we described frequency and peak density distributions of carriage in nasopharyngeal swabs from 161 healthy 2-4 y old children collected into STGG broth. In general, detection by qPCR and culture was consistent. Discordance mostly occurred at lower detection thresholds of both methods, although PCR assays for S. pyogenes and S. aureus were less sensitive. Density varied across 5-7 orders of magnitude for the 5 species with the abundant species skewed toward high values (modes: S. pneumoniae log3-4, M. catarrhalis & H. influenzae log4-5 CFU/ml broth). Wide ranges of bacterial DNA concentrations in healthy children carrying these bacteria could mean that different individuals at different times vary greatly in infectiousness. Understanding the host, microbial and environmental determinants of colonization density will permit more accurate prediction of vaccine effectiveness.

Dietary fish oil is believed to have a beneficial effect in various infections and in autoimmune disorders. This effect may correspond to an altered immune response. In order to discover whether the effect of dietary fish oil is different in various infections, we studied the survival of mice fed fish oil or corn oil supplemented diets and infected in the lungs with either Klebsiella pneumoniae or Streptococcus pneumoniae. 120 NMRI mice were divided into 4 groups, of which 2 groups were fed a fish oil supplemented diet and 2 a corn oil supplemented diet. After 6 weeks the mice were infected in the lungs with Klebsiella pneumoniae (fish oil groups and corn oil groups) or with Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 3 (both groups). The survival rate was monitored. The experiment was performed twice. The survival of the mice fed fish oil enriched diet and infected with Klebsiella pneumoniae was significantly better compared with the mice fed corn oil enriched diet (p = 0.0001 and p = 0.0013). No difference was found between the mice fed corn oil enriched diet or fish oil enriched diet and infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 3 (p = 0.74 and p = 0.15). Our results indicate that dietary fish oil has a beneficial effect on survival of mice after experimental pneumoniae when infected with Klebsiella pneumoniae, but not after infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 3.

Steve Chaplin, Dr Valtyr Thors and Professor Adam Finn provide an overview of the properties of the flu vaccine, now to be offered routinely to children aged two and three.

Fish oil is believed to alter the immune response and improve survival after infections in experimental animals. This effect may be due to altered production of the leukotrienes (LT). We, therefore, performed a study in order to evaluate whether the effect of fish oil on the immune response of experimental animals is mediated through altered production of the LT. Female NMRI mice in four groups were fed with fish oil, fish oil with 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) inhibitor (Zileuton, Abbott Laboratories, Chicago, IL, USA), corn oil or corn oil with 5-LO inhibitor. After 6 weeks, the mice were infected with Klebsiella pneumoniae and the survival was monitored. The experiment was performed twice. Analysis was performed mainly on data pooled from both experiments. The survival of the groups fed with fish oil was increased, compared to that of all the other groups and when compared to the groups fed with fish oil with 5-LO inhibitor (log-rank test) the difference was significant (P = 0.007). It has been postulated that the effect of fish oil on the immune system is mediated through altered production of LT. In our study, blocking of the production of the LT eliminated the beneficial effects of fish oil. Our results are in concord with the hypothesis that the effect of fish oil is, at least partly, mediated through altered production of LT.