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Lycopene is a phytochemical that is present at high concentration in fruits and vegetables such as tomato, guava, watermelon, spinach, carrot, beetroot, and red grapefruit. Lycopene, just like some members of the carotenoids family, has proven to be of high medicinal, scientific, pharmaceutical, and commercial value. These features of lycopene can be attributed to its chemical structure that has been proved to be responsible for its antioxidant properties. The conjugated polyene chains are responsible for its unstable and electrophilic attacks against free radicals because this double π electron system reduces the energy requirement for the oxidation of electrons in each double bond. This reactivity contributes to the efficacy of lycopene as the basis of its antioxidant activity in biological systems and its efficacy as a chemopreventive. This chapter presents this in details while emphasizing more on the therapeutic importance of lycopene.

Aim: In Belize, antibiotics are categorized as prescription-only drugs, and their sales over the counter without a prescription is prohibited. This study assessed the sales and dispensing of antibiotics in community pharmacies without a prescription. Methods: 36 community pharmacies in 4 districts of Belize were assessed for non-prescription sales of antibiotics using a simulated client method (SCM) approach from September to November 2019. Results: The majority (19; 52.8%) of the community pharmacies assessed refused to sell antibiotics without a prescription from a physician. Approximately 17 (47.2%) sold and dispensed antibiotics to simulated clients (SCs) without a prescription. Adequate patient counseling was provided by the pharmacists to the SCs. Conclusion: Some level of lack of compliance with the sales of antibiotics without prescription was observed among community pharmacists in this study. There is a need to reinforce stricter control on the sales and dispensing of antibiotics without prescription in the country of Belize.

Despite progress in understanding diazotrophic distribution in surface soils, few studies have investigated the distribution of diazotrophic in dipper soil layers. Here, we leveraged high-throughput sequencing (HTS) of nifH genes obtained to assess the influence of biochar amended soil (BC) and control (CK), and soil depths (0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm) on diazotrophic abundance and community structures, and soil biochemical properties. Although soil physio-chemical properties, enzymes activities, diazotrophic genera and enriched OTUs were significantly influenced across the entire soil profiles, our results also revealed that BC amended soil significantly increased cane stalk height and weight, soil NO3-, NH4+, OM, TC and AK, and enhanced diazotrophic genera in soil depth 0-20 cm compared to CK treatment. Soil TC, TN, OM and NH4+ were the major impact factors shifting diazotrophic community structures in soil depth 0-20 cm. Moreover, multivariate ANOVA analysis revealed that changes in majority of the soil parameters measured were associated with soil depth rather than fertilization. More diazotrophic genera were to a greater extent significantly and positively associated with many soil environmental variables especially in the surface soil 0-20 cm than diazotrophic phyla. Overall, these results were more pronounced in 0-20 cm soil depth in BC than CK treatment.

The management of blood bank is an integral part of health delivery system and it is centred on the donation and transfusion of blood. The four major classification of blood is considered in the formulation of Markov model with a first- order dependence. The data of blood transfused in a city hospital was studied and the result revealed that the blood that is donated and received by the same blood group constitute the major blood needed in the hospital with 100%, 99.1%, 98.3%, and 98.5% for blood groups AB,B,A and O respectively. There will be a little variation in the blood needed for transfusion in the future on the basis of the present when the initial values of the transition probabilities P12 (t), P13 (t), P14 (t), P24 (t), and P34 (t) (t = 0) are 0.00354, 0.00202, 0.00865, 0.01653 and 0.00884 respectively. The information about blood bank inventory is important for a successful health care delivery. If such information is available in every city hospital, it may be possible to move blood from one hospital to another during emergency. Mathematics Subject Classification: 60J28

In this paper, we developed a new mathematical model for the dynamics of hepatitis B virus (HBV) transmission in a population with vital dynamics, incorporating vertical transmission and sexual maturity. We obtained the basic reproduction number, 0 R , proof the local and global stability of the disease-free equilibrium of the model. Sensitivity analysis of 0 R with respect to the model parameters were carried out. Our result shows that birth rate, death removal rate, HBV sexual transmission probability per contact rate, and the average total sexual contacts rate are highly sensitive parameters that affect the transmission dynamics of HBV in any population. Thus, vaccination, condom usage and reduced-average sexual partner(s) are good strategies that can lead to controlling HBV transmission.

Objectives: This study was undertaken to review the caesarean section rate and perinatal mortality in Federal Medical Centre, Birnin Kudu from 1st January 2010 to 31st December, 2012. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective study involving review of 580 case files. Ethical clearance was obtained. The records of labour ward, neonatal intensive care unit (ICU) and operating theatre were use. Information extracted includes age, parity, booking status, total deliveries, indications for caesarean section and perinatal outcome from 1st January 2010 to 31st December 2012 at Federal Medical Centre, Birnin Kudu. The data obtained was analysed using SPSS version 17.0 statistical software (Chicago, Il, USA). Absolute numbers and simple percentages were used to describe categorical variables. Association between caesarean section and perinatal mortality was determined using Pearson's Coefficient of correlation and student t- test. P - value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Result: This study reported a caesarean section rate of 17.69 % and a perinatal mortality rate of 165.6 per 1000. Majority of the babies (78.2%) were within normal weight. The mean age of the women was 25.9 ± 6.2 years and mean parity was 4 ± 3. Majority of them were uneducated and unemployed. Obstructed labour was the commonest indication for emergency caesarean section accounting for 31.7% of caesarean sections and foetal distress was the least at 2.6 %. Two or more previous caesarean section was the commonest indication for elective caesarean section (17.1%) and bad obstetrics history the least indication (1.4%). There is a weak positive correlation (r = 0.35) between caesarean section rate and perinatal mortality and this association was not statistically significant (P = 0.12). Conclusion: Caesarean section and perinatal mortality rates in the present study are comparatively high. Absence of significant correlation means that a high caesarean section rate is not likely to improve perinatal outcomes in babies of normal weight; therefore the caesarean section rate in this centre should be reduced. Measures to reduce perinatal mortality such as skilled attendant in labour and training of medical staff in neonatal resuscitation should be adopted.

Background: Galactorrhea is a common manifestation of hyperprolactinemia but may not always be present in women with hyperprolactinemia. This study was, therefore, undertaken to assess the serum prolactin levels of infertile women presenting with galactorrhea and to determine the prevalence of hyperprolactinemia among them. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective study of serum prolactin levels of 63 female partners of infertile couples attending the gynecological clinic of Federal Medical Centre, Birnin Kudu, Jigawa State, Nigeria, who were found to have galactorrhea from January 1, 2012, to December 31, 2013. Ethical clearance was obtained. Solid phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure serum prolactin. Sociodemographic characteristics were determined. The data obtained were analyzed using SPSS version 17.0 statistical software. Absolute numbers and simple percentages were used to describe categorical variables. Similarly, quantitative variables were described using measures of central tendency (mean, median) and measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation) as appropriate. Results: The average age of the women was 27.9 ± 5.6 years. In half of the cases (50%), galactorrhea was associated with menstrual disturbances, mainly amenorrhea (23.3%). Although most (63.3%) of the clients had normal serum prolactin level despite being galactorrheic, averagely there was a marked elevation in serum prolactin of as high as 40.3 ± 52.3 ng/mL. Conclusion: We conclude, therefore, that the prevalence of hyperprolactinemia in this study was low when compared with other studies and that galactorrhea does not always indicate raised serum prolactin levels.

Background: Male partners contribute significantly to infertile couple problem. The present study was undertaken to review the seminal fluid analysis (SFA) of couples presenting with inability to conceive at the gynecological clinic of Federal Medical Centre, Birnin Kudu, Jigawa State using World Health Organization 2010 criteria, identify the correlation between poor semen quality and age and to identify culture and sensitivity patterns of isolates. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective study. The sample size was 63 Ethical clearance was obtained. Patients’ case records and laboratory registers were retrieved. The volume, viscosity, pH, sperm count, motility, and the morphology of the seminal fluid were determined. Semen m/c/s was done. Data were analyzed by using SPSS version 16 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Il, USA). Descriptive statistics was used. Association between age and semen parameters were determined using Pearson's coefficient of correlations and Chi-square test and P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Main outcome measures: The proportion of infertile male with abnormal semen parameters. Results: Of the 308 couple presenting for infertility evaluation, only 63 male partners presented for SFA. This is 20.5% of the couples. After analysis, 52.38% were normospermic while 26.98% and 20.64% were azoospermic and oligospermic, respectively. Asthenospermia was the commonest motility/morphology abnormality occurring in 60.3%. The mean volume, sperm count, motility, morphology, and pH were 2.8 ± 1.8, 40.1 ± 52.3, 28.2 ± 27.7, 46.1 ± 35.6, and 8.3 ± 0.67, respectively. The volume, motility, morphology, and pH showed weak correlations with age. Conclusion: Male partners are significant contributors to the infertile couple problems in this study; therefore awareness is needed in order to engage more males in evaluation and treatment of infertility.

Background: Episiotomy can be defined as a surgical incision made at the perineum to widen the introitus and facilitate delivery. Objective: To assess the perception of women on episiotomy. Design: A prospective cross sectional study. Settings: This was the antenatal clinic of Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano. Methods: All consented pregnant women at booking were recruited and interviewed. Results: Over the six weeks period of the study, 109 women were interviewed. Majority of the women (94.5%) have heard of episiotomy and 81.7% were able to describe it as a surgical incision to facilitate delivery. Most of their sources of information were from friends/relatives (52.3%). Fifty seven (52.3%) out of the 109 women have had episiotomy and 'Big baby' as described was the commonest indication for the episiotomy (62.5%). Majority of the women (66.1%) Did not have prior counselling before episiotomy and 76.8% Did not have any complication following the repair. Most of the women (69.6%) had their episiotomies repaired within an hour of delivery. Twenty eight (49.1%) out of the 56 women who had episiotomy do not believe women should be routinely given episiotomy at delivery while 40.4% of the women were of the opinion that it should be routine to avoid injury to the baby. Majority of the women (82.1%) advocated for anaesthesia prior to episiotomy. Conclusion: There is a good knowledge of this procedure among pregnant women in AKTH Kano.