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Background Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is highly pathogenic, and clinical studies revealed that HDV infection aggravates the natural history of the underlying hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection by progression to cirrhosis that leads to early decompensation of liver function compared with HBV mono-infection. To determine the seroprevalence of HDV among HBsAg-seropositive patients and associated biochemical profiles at Maiduguri, Nigeria, a hospital-based cross-sectional study on 180 sera of patients positive for HBsAg by ELISA were evaluated for anti-HDV, hepatitis B envelop antigen, anti-HBs antibodies and liver enzyme profiles. Results HDV seroprevalence of 3.3% among 180 HBsAg-positive patients. Relatively higher seroprevalence of HDV was observed in males (4.3%) than in females (2.3%). The highest infection rate (20%) was obtained in patients ≥ 56 years. However, no significant association between positive anti-HDV seroprevalence and gender (p > 0.05). Of the 6 (3.3%) anti-HDV-positive patients, only 1 (16.7%) was positive for HBeAg while all were negative for anti-HBs antibodies. The mean level of liver enzyme level of AST and ALT of the anti-HDV-positive patients significantly differ from that of HBsAg mono-infected patients (p ˂ 0.05). However, no significant difference (p p ˃ 0.05) was found. Conclusion This study revealed a relatively low presence of HDV in HBsAg-positive patients. Furthermore, HDV-HBV co-infected patients had somewhat worse liver enzyme upregulation. This underscores the need for rapid HDV testing and treatment in HBV-infected patients.

Background and study aim: Inadequately treated water supply and unhygienic food consumption are the major sources of contracting feco-orally transmitted viral pathogens, including Rotavirus. This prospective study aimed to assess the presence of Rotavirus in sewage, underground and surface waters collected from different locations within Maiduguri Metropolis, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: A total of 170 sewage and water samples (underground and surface waters) were collected from various sources in high-density and low-density areas of the Maiduguri metropolis. A modified adsorption- elution method for concentration of enteric viruses in sewage and water samples and detection of the presence of rotavirus (if present) was done using Enzyme linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA). The viruses in water were concentrated by negatively charged membrane filtration, eluted with 0.05M Glycine at pH 11.5, and re-concentrated by centrifugation at 12,000rpm for one hour. Results: Out of the 60 domestic sewage samples collected from high-density areas, 8.3% were positive for rotavirus antigen, whereas none of the samples from low-density areas were positive. In addition, rotavirus antigen was not detected in underground and surface water samples. The temperature range of the 5 rotavirus positive samples was 23-30oC. All the 5 positive samples had alkaline pH that ranged between 8 and 9. Conclusion: This study has demonstrated the persistence of rotavirus in sewage and its possible transmission through contaminated food and poor treated water

Objectives: Destruction of blood cells and damage to hepatocytes are the hallmark of hepatitis B viral infection. This cross-sectional study was undertaken to evaluate some hematological parameters and biomarkers of liver injury in healthy blood donors infected with the occult and overt hepatitis B attending the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital (UATH) and Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital (NAUTH) Nnewi, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: A total of 20 overt and 14 occult hepatitis B virus-infected blood donors were confirmed and enrolled using Roche ® COBAS q-PCR from 212 consented pooled subjects. Hematological parameters and absolute CD4+ T-cell count were determined using the Sysmex hematology analyzer and Partec cyflow counter, respectively. Determination of serum Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) and Alpha Feto-protein (AFP) levels were done spectrophotometrically and ELISA, respectively. Results: The mean red blood cells, hematocrit, hemoglobin, white blood cells, CD4 and platelet count in the overt group were not statistically significantly different from the occult group p>0.05. However, of the 34 infected subjects, 7 (20.6%), 6 (17.7%), 2 (5.9%), 13 (38.2%), 2 (5.9%) and 4 (11.8%) had abnormally low blood values for red blood cells, white blood cells, hematocrit, hemoglobin, CD4 and platelets respectively. The mean ALT and ALP values from the occult and overt groups were not also significantly different (p>0.05). Conclusion: This study found a decrease in the values of some blood cells. However, no significant changes in the liver enzymes were found. These infected individuals should be managed to prevent transmission of HBV infection to other people and subsequent destruction of blood cells and damage to liver cells. Future studies could focus on patients with chronic liver diseases/Hepatocellular carcinoma caused by HBV to determine the effects on the liver biomarkers and hematological parameters.

Introduction. Toxoplasmosis is a neglected parasitic infection that has economic and epidemiological significance. Data on toxoplasmosis seroprevalence among Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infected pregnant women may be of obstetric and neonatal concern. Aim. The study was designed to determine the seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis and associated risk factors in HIV-positive pregnant women attending the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Abuja, Northcentral Nigeria. Material and methods. This was a hospital-based cross-sectional study. A total of 160 HIV seropositive pregnant women were recruited. Blood samples were collected and tested for anti-T. gondii IgM and IgG using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Structured questionnaires were used to collate the sociodemographic variables of participants. Results. Out of the 160 of HIV seropositive pregnant women, the seroprevalence anti-T. gondii IgG and IgM were 29.4% and 4.4%, respectively. There was no significant association between anti-T. gondii and all sociodemographic variables studied (p>0.05). Conclusion. The overall result of this study revealed that the majority of pregnant women were exposed to toxoplasmosis much earlier in life. Hence, these findings will assist obstetricians and gynecologists in the early diagnosis and management of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women, especially HIV coinfected ones with IgM seropositivity.

Introduction: Human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV) is associated with shorter survival of HIV co-infected persons due to masked immunosuppression. Since both retroviruses share similar routes of transmission, there is a need to determine risk factors associated with these pathogens. This study aimed to assess the risk factors associated with HTLV-1/-2 and HIV co-infected among persons attending a secondary hospital in Ningi, Bauchi State, Nigeria. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 182 HIV infected persons and analysed for anti- HTLV-1/2 IgM and IgG antibodies using commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kits. Interviewer-based questionnaire were used to collate sociodemographic and risk factor data of the subjects and clinical history were obtained from participants’ medical records. Results: The seroprevalence of anti-HTLV-1/-2 IgM and IgG were 9.9% and 19.8%, respectively. Out of the 80 ART-naïve, 25 (31.3%) were IgM seropositive. Out of 102 ART-experienced, 11 (10.8%) were anti-HTLV-1/-2 IgM positive. There was a significant association between ART status and seroprevalence of anti-HTLV-1/-2 IgM (p=0.009). However, there was no significance association between seroprevalence of HTLV IgM and gender of the subjects (p=0.06). There was a significant association between the seroprevalence of anti-HTLV-1/-2 IgG and education level of subjects (p=0.039). However, no association between anti-HTLV-1/-2 IgG and other sociodemographic variables studied (p˃ 0.05). History of injury from sharp objects (aOR: 5.3, p

Dengue (DEN) is a semi-neglected and dangerously re-emerging, mosquito-borne viral disease of the Flaviviridae family. Dengue virus (DENV) has been rapidly spreading for the past 6 decades, and now affects more than 50% the world’s population, especially the tropical and subtropical countries. DENV transmission and geographic expansion is expected to rise due to increased international travels, deforestation, industrialization, urbanization and climatic changes. A major control strategy for dengue is achieved through targeting the mosquito vectors, which put a significant break in the transmission of DENV to humans. For long, most dengue endemic nations relied heavily on chemical control measures, however, there were growing concerns and controversies on cases of multiple insecticide resistance. Therefore, more research interest has shifted toward studies on the use of biological control, biotechnological approaches, as potential alternatives. Indeed, dengue prevention is a key, mainly through continuous search for novel vaccines and/or improves on the potency, effectiveness, efficacy, safety, and affordability of existing ones, in order to assure protection against all serotypes of dengue, regardless of age, sex or race of people. In this chapter, we outlined and elucidated available non-insecticide based dengue control strategies that have been implemented, and/or currently being tested. We also updated information on currently licensed dengue vaccines, those in clinical trials and their public health prospects in the prevention of dengue.

The clinical symptoms, cellular immune response, and serum cytokine homeostasis during falciparum malaria among children living in endemic regions depend on the parasite densities. This study aims to evaluate the CD4This case-control study involved blood samples collected from 165 children (between 5 and 12 years). This comprised 45 children with mild malaria, 40 each with moderate, severe malaria and apparently healthy (control). Serum cytokines, ferritin, malonaldehyde (MDA), ascorbate, α-tocopherol levels were determined by Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA). Leucocytes differentials and CD4All malarial children had onlyBased on these findings, severe malaria was significantly associated with declined CD4

In this conceptual review, we thoroughly searched for appropriate English articles on nasal staphylococci carriage among healthy people with no reported risk of colonization (Group A), food handlers (Group B), veterinarians (Group C), and livestock farmers (Group D) published between 2000 and 2021. Random-effects analyses of proportions were performed to determine the pooled prevalence of S. aureus, MRSA, MRSA-CC398, and MSSA-CC398, as well as the prevalence of PVL-positive S. aureus from all eligible studies. A total of 166 eligible papers were evaluated for Groups A/B/C/D (n = 58/31/26/51). The pooled prevalence of S. aureus and MRSA in healthy humans of Groups A to D were 15.9, 7.8, 34.9, and 27.1%, and 0.8, 0.9, 8.6, and 13.5%, respectively. The pooled prevalence of MRSA-CC398 nasal carriage among healthy humans was as follows: Group A/B (spa-t571 (animal-independent clade), while those of Groups C and D were spa-t011 and t034. The MRSA-CC398 was predominately of t011 and t034 in all the groups (with few other spa-types, livestock-associated clades). The pooled prevalence of MSSA and MRSA isolates carrying the PVL encoding genes were 11.5 and 9.6% (ranges: 0.0–76.9 and 0.0–28.6%), respectively. Moreover, one PVL-positive MSSA-t011-CC398 isolate was detected in Group A. Contact with livestock and veterinary practice seems to increase the risk of carrying MRSA-CC398, but not in food handlers. Thus, this emphasizes the need for integrated molecular epidemiology of zoonotic staphylococci.

OBJECTIVES West Nile virus (WNV) is a re-emerging mosquito-borne viral infection. This study investigated the pooled prevalence pattern and risk factors of WNV infection among humans and animals in Nigeria. METHODS A systematic review was conducted of eligible studies published in PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science from January 1, 1950 to August 30, 2020. Peer-reviewed cross-sectional studies describing WNV infections in humans and animals were systematically reviewed. Heterogeneity was assessed using the Cochrane Q statistic. RESULTS Eighteen out of 432 available search output were eligible and included for this study. Of which 13 and 5 were WNV studies on humans and animals, respectively. Although 61.5% of the human studies had a low risk of bias, they all had high heterogeneity. The South West geopolitical zone of Nigeria had the highest pooled prevalence of anti-WNV immunoglobulin M (IgM; 7.8% in humans). The pooled seroprevalence of anti-WNV IgM and immunoglobulin G (IgG) was 7.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 5.9 to 8.3) and 76.5% (95% CI, 74.0 to 78.8), respectively. The WNV RNA prevalence was 1.9% (95% CI, 1.4 to 2.9), while 14.3% (95% CI, 12.9 to 15.8) had WNV-neutralizing antibodies. In animals, the pooled seroprevalence of anti-WNV IgM and IgG was 90.3% (95% CI, 84.3 to 94.6) and 3.5% (95% CI, 1.9 to 5.8), respectively, while 20.0% (95% CI, 12.9 to 21.4) had WNV-neutralizing antibodies. Age (odds ratio [OR], 3.73; 95% CI, 1.87 to 7.45; p

Lassa virus (LASV) has increasingly been recognised as a significant public-health pathogen transmitted by rodents. LASV infection leads to life-threatening Lassa fever, which has high potential for severe morbidity and mortality. There have been several scientific efforts to understand the genomics and ecological epidemiology of Lassa. However, very limited studies have focused on the short- and long-term impacts of environmental factors, human behaviours and rodent activities on LASV transmission dynamics and control. Recently, a very plausible and ideal way to address the Lassa epidemic has been considered through the One Health approach. The One Health system of intervention is capable of providing better and comprehensive information necessary to address the complex interplay between human, ecological, and environmental determinants of LASV transmission, persistence and re-emergence. Thus, the aim of this article was to review critically the impacts of various environmental factors on rodent infestations, LASV transmission and how human activities contribute to the persistence of Lassa with regard to exploring how they could be harnessed for better understanding of Lassa prevention and control through a concerted One Health approach.

Background: This cross-sectional study investigated the serological profile, socio-demographic characters and risk factors of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection among HBsAg-negative blood donors at the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital (UATH) Gwagwalada and Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital (NAUTH) Nnewi, Nigeria.Methods: Blood samples collected from 176 HBsAg-negative blood donors (96 from UATH and 80 from NAUTH) were screened using a commercially available HBV 5-Panel (CTK Biotech, USA) and anti-HBc IgM ELISA kits. Determination of HBV-DNA was done on 36 HBV positive and 100 negative samples using COBAS Roche Real-time qPCR. Structured questionnaires were used to collate subjects’ socio-demographic variables and risk factors of HBV infection. Results: Out of 176 samples tested, 140 (79.5%) were negative for HBV serologic markers while 36 (20.5%) were positive. The pattern of seropositivity showed that 19 (10.8%) samples were positive for anti-HBs, 9 (5.1%) were positive for anti-HBc, 3 (1.7%) were positive for both anti-HBc & anti-HBs and 5 (2.8%) were positive for anti-HBc IgM. None was positive for HBeAg and anti-HBe markers. Of the 36 HBV positive and 100 negative samples, 15 (41.7%) and 3 (3%) were positive for HBV-DNA respectively p=0.006. Not heard of HBV, no vaccination with HBV vaccines, previous blood transfusion, history of sexually transmitted diseases and visiting commercial barbers were significantly associated with HBV infection. Socio-demographic data showed that male blood donors were more infected with HBV than the females (p=0.284) and age group 26-40 years old was more affected than other age groups (p=0.015). Conclusions: The study revealed the endemicity of HBV infection and recommends that blood donors with critical risk factors be deferred from blood donation to reduce HBV transmission risk in Nigeria. Anti-HBc and anti-HBs markers could be included as screening tests for blood donors since HBV-DNA testing is not readily available and affordable.

Chikungunya (CHIK) is a re-emerging and myo-arthritogenic arboviral infection that has affected significant global population. However, CHIK is a neglected disease in Nigeria. This study aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence pattern of CHIK virus infection in Nigeria. A systematic review of eligible articles was conducted from “PubMed”, “Scopus”, “Google Scholar” and “Web of Science”, between January 1980 to February 2020. Peer-reviewed articles describing CHIKV infection in cross-sectional studies were systematically reviewed. Random-effect model was used to pool the prevalence of CHIKV infection and associated sociodemographic data reported from eligible studies. In total, there were 10 published articles on CHIKV infection. Of these, 7 were cross-sectional studies, which comprised of 1347 pooled participants. The pooled anti-CHIKV IgM and IgG seroprevalence were 26.7% (95% CI: 23.2 – 30.4) and 29.3% (95% CI: 26.2 -32.6), respectively. Of the pooled studies, there were 3.8% (95% CI: 2.0-6.4) CHIKV RNA positive cases and 46.1% prevalence of CHIKV neutralizing antibodies. Of the 6 geopolitical zones in Nigeria, Northeast had the highest serological evidence of CHIKV infection. There was a significance association between the prevalence of anti-CHIKV and geopolitical zones of Nigeria (χ²= 70.04; p˂0.0001). Sex (p ˂0.0001; OR= 1.87 [1.47 – 2.38]) and level of education (p ˂0.0001; OR= 2.74 [1.89 – 3.95]) were significant risk factors for pooled anti-CHIKV IgM seropositivity. However, no significant association was found with other sociodemographic variables (p ˃0.05). Although there was paucity of data on CHIKV research in Nigeria, this meta-analysis revealed a high prevalence of CHIKV infection in the country.

Objective: An estimated 75% of Nigerians are at risk of hepatitis B virus (HBV) exposure. In an attempt to reduce the menace, the assessment of risk factors associated with HBV infection and general perception of infected individuals is a step in that direction. This study, therefore, identified exposure to risk factors and general perceptions associated with HBV infection in infected individuals in Zaria, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Four milliliters of blood were collected in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid container from each of 165 HBV surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive participants recruited purposively from the gastroenterology clinic of ABUTH Zaria from May to August 2017. Plasma was separated and used to screen for HBsAg with Fastep® rapid strip. Epi Info® questionnaire database was used to collate data on sociodemographics, risk factors, and perception indices. GraphPad Prism 6 was used for statistical analysis. Results: The median interquartile range age of the participants was 31.0 (25.5–39.0) years with 107 (64.8%) male participants. Sharing hair clippers, commercial pedicure, and body piercing among others were some of the risks that the study participants reported to be exposed to. One-quarter of health workers involved in the study had needlestick injury. Less than half of the study participants (47.7%) knew of hepatitis B before testing HBsAg seropositive. Knowledge of the HBV vaccine before testing and adherence was generally poor (38.6% and 44.6%, respectively). There was a significant linear relationship between the level of education and knowledge of hepatitis B. Conclusion: Considering the myriads of already established risks of HBV seen in Zaria, massive enlightenment campaigns need to be embarked on continuously through all available media, including social media.

Background and Aims: Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are considered major reservoir for genes encoding antimicrobial resistance. The mechanism of resistance and persistence of UPEC has been attributed to the production of biofilm and Extended Beta Lactamase (ESBL). This hospital-based prospective study determined how biofilm and ESBL production facilitate antibacterial resistance amongst UPEC isolated from catheter urine of patients attending the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Urine samples from 113 catheterized inpatients and outpatients were analysed. Female subjects accounted for 47 (41.6%) of the study population. Standard microbiological methods and Analytical Profile Index (API) 20E were used for the isolation and identification of UPEC. Tissue culture plate technique was used to demonstrate biofilm production potentials and double-disc synergy test was used to determine ESBL production. Results: Catheter associated urinary tract infection in this study was 70.8% of samples analysed. Of this, Escherichia coli, 44 (55.0%) was the most predominant. UPEC, biofilm and ESBL production amounted to 38.9%, 81.8% and 27.2%, respectively. ESBL production was significantly associated with degree of biofilm formation (p0.05). Imipenem, however, was the most sensitive with no resistance by the UPEC. Conclusions: ESBL and biofilm production were associated with antibacterial resistance. The incidence of ESBL production amongst biofilm forming UPEC is of great public health concern.

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis still constitutes a diagnostic challenge for clinicians due to its non-specific symptoms. HIV infection represents one of the major risk factors due to the progressive failure of the immune system. In this study, Aspergillus serum galactomannan enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was used for the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients living with HIV/AIDS attending University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital Antiretroviral Therapy Clinic, Nigeria. Blood samples were collected from 97 patients affected by HIV/AIDS. Age range of the study population was between 0 and 79 years. Length of the study: 3 weeks. Three out of the 97 samples were positive for the galactomannan assay with an optical density index of 1.1, 0.9 and 1.1 using the 0.5 cut-off optical density value; the concentration level of galactomannan antigen was therefore 2.20 μg/L, 1 μg/L and 2.19 μg/L, respectively. A prevalence of 3.1 % (3/97) was detected; all positive participants have been on ART for more than 3 years (P

Backround: Data on Dengue virus (DENV) infection prevalence, geographic distribution and risk factors are necessary to direct appropriate utilization of existing and emerging control strategies. This study aimed to determine the pooled prevalence, risk factors of DENV infection and the circulating serotypes within Nigeria from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2020. Materials and methods: Twenty-one studies out of 2,215 available articles were eligible and included for this systematic review. Relevant articles were searched, screened and included in this study according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria. The risk of bias in primary studies was assessed by Cochrane's method. Heterogeneity of pooled prevalence was calculated using the chi-square test on Cochrane's Q statistic, which was quantified by I-square values. The random-effects analyses of proportions were used to determine the pooled prevalence of DENV antibodies, antigen and RNA from eligible studies. Results: Of these, 3 studies reported co-circulation of all the 4 serotypes, while 2 separately reported co-circulation of DENV-1 &2 and DENV-1 to -3. All the antibody-based studies had significantly high heterogeneity (I2 >90%, P 0.05). The pooled prevalence of DENV IgM, IgG, RNA, NS1 and neutralizing antibodies were 16.8%, 34.7%, 7.7%, 7.7% and 0.7%, respectively. Southeast Nigeria had the highest pooled DENV-IgG seropositivity, 77.1%. Marital status, gender, educational level and occupation status, the proximity of residence to refuse dumpsite, frequent use of trousers and long sleeve shirts were significantly associated with DENV IgG seropositivity (P

Background: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is hyperendemic in Nigeria. Available literature reveal genotype E as being predominant in West Africa. This study aimed at identifying the current pattern and prevalent genotypes of HBV in Zaria, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Four millilitre of blood was collected in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-container from each of 165 HBV surface antigen-positive participants recruited purposively from the gastroenterology clinic from May to August, 2017. Plasma was separated and frozen at −20°C till analysis. Multiplex-nested polymerase chain reaction using type-specific primers was used to identify the various HBV genotypes. Results: Median (and interquartile range ) age of the participants was 31.0 (25.5–39.0) years, with males constituting 107 (64.8%). Majority (83.6%) of the samples analysed were HBV-DNA-positive with 82.6% of the HBV-DNA-positive samples being mixed genotype infections. Irrespective of mode of occurrence, five HBV genotypes were identified with HBV/E (97.1%) being the most predominant, followed by HBV/B (82.6%), HBV/A (24.6%), then HBV/C (17.4%), while HBV/D (0.7%) was the least prevalent. Conclusion: In most (99.1%) of the mixed-infection were a combination of genotype E, the predominant genotype, with other genotypes predominantly genotype B. HBV genotypes E, B, A, C and D are the prevalent genotypes in Zaria, Nigeria, as they occur in single genotype and in mixed-genotypes pattern.