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Aims The purpose of this study is to assess the in vitro enzyme inhibition profile of DSP-7238, a novel non-cyanopyrrolidine dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) IV inhibitor and to evaluate the acute and chronic effects of this compound on glucose metabolism in two different mouse models of type 2 diabetes. Methods The in vitro enzyme inhibition profile of DSP-7238 was assessed using plasma and recombinant enzymes including DPP IV, DPP II, DPP8, DPP9 and fibroblast activation protein alpha (FAPalpha) with fluorogenic substrates. The inhibition type was evaluated based on the Lineweaver-Burk plot. Substrate selectivity of DSP-7238 and comparator DPP IV inhibitors (vildagliptin, sitagliptin, saxagliptin and linagliptin) was evaluated by mass spectrometry based on the changes in molecular weight of peptide substrates caused by release of N-terminal dipeptides. In the in vivo experiments, high-fat diet-induced obese (DIO) mice were subjected to oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) following a single oral administration of DSP-7238. To assess the chronic effects of DSP-7238 on glycaemic control and pancreatic beta-cell damage, DSP-7238 was administered for 11 weeks to mice made diabetic by a combination of high-fat diet (HFD) and a low-dose of streptozotocin (STZ). After the dosing period, HbA1c was measured and pancreatic damage was evaluated by biological and histological analyses. Results DSP-7238 and sitagliptin both competitively inhibited recombinant human DPP IV (rhDPP IV) with K(i) values of 0.60 and 2.1 nM respectively. Neither vildagliptin nor saxagliptin exhibited competitive inhibition of rhDPP IV. DSP-7238 did not inhibit DPP IV-related enzymes including DPP8, DPP9, DPP II and FAPalpha, whereas vildagliptin and saxagliptin showed inhibition of DPP8 and DPP9. Inhibition of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) degradation by DSP-7238 was apparently more potent than its inhibition of chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 10 (IP-10) or chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 12 (SDF-1alpha) degradation. In contrast, vildagliptin and saxagliptin showed similar degree of inhibition of degradation for all the substrates tested. Compared to treatment with the vehicle, single oral administration of DSP-7238 dose-dependently decreased plasma DPP IV activity and improved glucose tolerance in DIO mice. In addition, DSP-7238 significantly decreased HbA1c and ameliorated pancreatic damage following 11 weeks of chronic treatment in HFD/STZ mice. Conclusions We have shown in this study that DSP-7238 is a potent DPP IV inhibitor that has high specificity for DPP IV and substrate selectivity against GLP-1. We have also found that chronic treatment with DSP-7238 improves glycaemic control and ameliorates beta-cell damage in a mouse model with impaired insulin sensitivity and secretion. These findings indicate that DSP-7238 may be a new therapeutic agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

We previously demonstrated that repetitive administration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) ameliorates glucose metabolism and energy expenditure in obese diabetic db/db mice. However, we have not evaluated in detail the effect of single or intermittent BDNF administration on glucose metabolism in a diabetic animal model. The objectives of this study were to examine the dose-response effect and dosing interval of BDNF administration in db/db mice and to evaluate the effect of intermittent BDNF administration on pancreatic function in db/db mice. We evaluated the dose-response effect of BDNF by single administration in db/db mice. First, single administration of BDNF greater than 70 mg/kg significantly reduced blood glucose concentration one day after administered, and the BDNF effect was maintained for 6 d. Next, the effects of BDNF administered twice a week at 4, 10, 25, and 62.5 mg/kg on blood glucose concentration, and the effects of BDNF administered once a week at 10, 20, 30, 50, and 70 mg/kg on blood glucose concentration were examined in db/db mice. In the intermittent treatment studies, BDNF dose-dependently ameliorated glucose metabolism by not only the twice-a-week administration but also the once-a-week administration. Lastly, because BDNF reduces the food intake of obese hyperphagic diabetic mice, the effects of BDNF administered once or twice a week on the blood glucose concentration and plasma and pancreatic insulin concentrations in db/db mice were compared with those of the vehicle under pair-fed conditions. Under pair-fed conditions, the intermittent administration of BDNF (25 mg/kg, twice a week, or 50 mg/kg, once a week) significantly reduced the blood glucose concentration and increased the plasma and pancreatic insulin concentrations compared with those in the pair-fed vehicle-treated db/db mice. This indicates that the prolonged hypoglycemic effect of BDNF is not simply due to the reduction of food intake. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the intermittent administration of BDNF ameliorates glucose metabolism and prevents pancreatic exhaustion in obese diabetic mice. These findings indicate that BDNF may have potential as a unique hypoglycemic agent for the treatment of diabetes at a fundamental level with good patient compliance.

We previously reported that peripheral injection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) exhibits hypophagic and hypoglycemic effects in obese hyperglycemic animals, indicating its antiobesity and antidiabetic effects. Since previous studies were focused on the effect of BDNF on overt diabetic animals with severe hyperglycemia, there was no evidence whether BDNF is effective or not for the development of diabetes in prediabetic animal models. Therefore, we evaluated the effect of BDNF on preventing the development of diabetes in db/db mice. First, we characterized age-related changes in the pathophysiology of diabetes in db/db mice. We chose 8 week-old db/db mice as the early diabetic stage (early intervention study) and 4 week-old db/db mice as the prediabetic stage (prevention study). Next, we examined the effects of BDNF on the progression of diabetes in early diabetic db/db mice. In the early intervention study using 8 week-old db/db mice, intermittent treatment with BDNF prevented the deterioration in hyperglycemia. Lastly, we examined the preventive effects of BDNF on the development of diabetes in prediabetic db/db mice. In the prevention study using 4 week-old db/db mice, treatment with BDNF prevented the age-related increase in blood glucose concentration. These results showed for the first time that BDNF prevents the development of diabetes in prediabetic db/db mice.

Aims: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) ameliorates glucose metabolism in obese diabetic db/db mice. The antidiabetic effect of BDNF is dependent on plasma insulin levels, and BDNF enhances insulin action by modulating insulin signalling in peripheral tissues. The aim of the study was to compare the antidiabetic effects of BDNF with those of thiazolidinediones (TZDs), which are insulin-sensitizing agents, through evaluation of the effects of BDNF and TZDs on glucose metabolism, energy expenditure, pancreatic function and hepatic steatosis in db/db mice. Methods: The effects of BDNF, pioglitazone and rosiglitazone on blood glucose concentration, body weight and pancreatic insulin and glucagon contents and the effects of BDNF and troglitazone treatment for 3 weeks on blood glucose concentration, body and liver weights and histological liver images were examined in db/db mice. Furthermore, since BDNF reduces food intake in obese hyperphagic diabetic mice, the effects of BDNF treatment for 3 weeks on blood glucose concentration, body weight, fat pad and liver weights and rectal temparature in db/db mice were compared with those of troglitazone under pair-fed conditions. Results: BDNF, pioglitazone and rosiglitazone all ameliorated hyperglycaemia in db/db mice, but BDNF increased the pancreatic insulin content more effectively than pioglitazone and rosiglitazone. The pancreatic glucagon content decreased with BDNF, but increased with pioglitazone and rosiglitazone compared with vehicle, and body weight and liver weight increased with troglitazone, but decreased with BDNF compared with vehicle. Histological analysis of the liver showed that BDNF treatment reduced the massive vacuolization observed with vehicle, whereas troglitazone worsened the vacuolization. Body weight, fat pad and liver weights in BDNF-treated mice were significantly lower than those in pair-fed troglitazone-treated db/db mice, and rectal temperature in BDNF-treated mice was significantly higher than that in pair-fed troglitazone-treated mice, suggesting that BDNF enhances energy expenditure. Conclusions: These data suggest that compared with TZDs, BDNF potently ameliorates pancreatic dysfunction, fatty liver and energy expenditure, thereby exerting favourable antidiabetic effects in type 2 diabetic mice.

Aims: Repetitive subcutaneous or intracerebroventricular administration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) ameliorates glucose metabolism and enhances energy expenditure in obese diabetic C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice. To explore the mechanism of action through which BDNF regulates glucose metabolism, we examined the effects of BDNF on glucose utilization and norepinephrine (NE) content in peripheral tissues of diabetic mice. Methods: [14C]2-deoxyglucose ([14C]2-DG) uptake into peripheral tissues was analysed after intravenous injection of [14C]2-DG in db/db and normal C57BL/6 mice, and [14C]2-DG uptake and NE content in peripheral tissues were analysed after subcutaneous administration of BDNF (20 mg/kg) to male db/db and normal mice for 8 days. Results: [14C]2-DG uptake in the diaphragm, heart, gastrocnemius, soleus and interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) of db/db mice was significantly lower than in normal mice. Repetitive administration of BDNF to db/db mice for 8 days enhanced [14C]2-DG uptake in the diaphragm, heart, soleus, BAT and liver. The NE content in heart, skeletal muscle, interscapular BAT and liver of db/db mice given BDNF was high compared with db/db mice given vehicle, whereas no significant change in NE content in peripheral tissues was observed in normal mice given BDNF and those given vehicle. BDNF did not affect [14C]2-DG uptake or NE content in the white adipose tissue of db/db mice. Conclusions: These data indicate that BDNF ameliorates glucose metabolism by enhancement of glucose utilization in muscle and BAT, with this effect caused by modulation of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

We examined the effects of activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)alpha, PPARgamma, and both of them in combination in obese diabetic KKAy mice and investigated the mechanisms by which they improve insulin sensitivity. PPARalpha activation by its agonist, Wy-14,643, as well as PPARgamma activation by its agonist, rosiglitazone, markedly improved insulin sensitivity. Interestingly, dual activation of PPARalpha and -gamma by a combination of Wy-14,643 and rosiglitazone showed increased efficacy. Adipocyte size in Wy-14,643-treated KKAy mice was much smaller than that of vehicle- or rosiglitazone-treated mice, suggesting that activation of PPARalpha prevents adipocyte hypertrophy. Moreover, Wy-14,643 treatment reduced inflammation and the expression of macrophage-specific genes in white adipose tissue (WAT). Importantly, Wy-14,643 treatment upregulated expression of the adiponectin receptor (AdipoR)-1 and AdipoR2 in WAT, which was decreased in WAT of KKAy mice compared with that in nondiabetic control mice. Furthermore, Wy-14,643 directly increased expression of AdipoRs and decreased monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression in adipocytes and macrophages. Rosiglitazone increased serum adiponectin concentrations and the ratio of high molecular weight multimers of adiponectin to total adiponectin. A combination of rosiglitazone and Wy-14,643 increased both serum adiponectin concentrations and AdipoR expression in WAT. These data suggest that PPARalpha activation prevents inflammation in WAT and that dual activation of PPARalpha and -gamma enhances the action of adiponectin by increasing both adiponectin and AdipoRs, which can result in the amelioration of obesity-induced insulin resistance.

Obesity is defined as increased mass of adipose tissue, conferring a higher risk of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and coronary heart disease. To investigate the role of transcriptional factors, which are involved in adipocytes differentiation and adiposity, we have generated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ or CREB-binding protein (CBP)-deficient mice by gene targeting. Heterozygous PPARγ-deficient mice were protected from the development of insulin resistance due to adipocyte hypertrophy under a high-fat diet. Heterozygous CBP-deficient mice showed increased insulin sensitivity and were completely protected from body weight gain induced by a high-fat diet. PPARγ or CBP deficiency results in increased effects of hormones such as adiponectin and leptin. Adiponectin was decreased in obesity and lipoatrophy, and replenishment of adiponectin ameliorated insulin resistance. Moreover, adiponectin-deficient mice showed insulin resistance and atherogenic phenotype. Finally, cDNA encoding adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1/R2) have been identified by expression cloning. The expression of AdipoR1/R2 appears to be inversely regulated by insulin in physiological and pathophysiological states such as fasting/refeeding, insulin deficiency, and hyperinsulinemia models, and it is correlated with adiponectin sensitivity. These results facilitate the understanding of molecular mechanisms of adiponectin actions and obesity-linked diseases such as diabetes and atherosclerosis and propose the molecular targets for anti-diabetic and anti-atherogenic drugs. Keywords:: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ, CREB-binding protein (CBP), adiponectin, adiponectin receptor, insulin resistance

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) enhances proliferation of renal epithelial cells as well as hepatocytes. HGF accelerates recovery from acute renal failure (ARF) in animal models. However, pharmacological profiles of HGF including its action mechanism has not been studied in detail. An HgCl2-induced ARF mouse was used in this study to evaluate the efficacy of HGF. Single administrations of recombinant human HGF or vehicle were given to ARF mice 30 min after HgCl2 injection. Renal function was monitored by measuring serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and creatinine clearance. In the ARF mice, there was a deterioration of renal function biochemical parameters and histological evidence of renal damage including acute tubular necrosis of proximal tubules. These were both significantly ameliorated by a single HGF administration. The effect of HGF was noticeable in the early phase of ARF (1 day after onset) when there was no histological evidence of increased labeling indexes in renal tubular epithelial cells. Western blot analysis of the c-Met/HGF receptor showed that tyrosine phosphorylation was enhanced immediately after HGF administration indicating direct activation of renal epithelial cells. HGF prevented increase of apoptotic nuclei with DNA fragmentation in renal epithelial cells which suggests cytoprotective activity of HGF on renal epithelial cells in the ARF mice.

Background/Aims: Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), a multi-potent growth factor, is known to promote regeneration of damaged renal epithelial cells. Glycerol injection into rats induces severe acute renal failure (ARF) with ischemia and tubular necrosis, a model which shares many features with human ARF or rhabdomyolysis. We investigated the efficacy of HGF in this glycerol-induced ARF rat model. Methods: ARF was induced by intramuscular injection of glycerol into the hind limbs of male Wistar rats. HGF (0.25 mg/kg/shot) or vehicle was administered intravenously 1 h before and 1, 3, 5, 8, 24 and 36 h after glycerol injection. Biochemical parameters for serum and urine were measured and histological analyses of the kidneys were performed. We also analyzed endogenous HGF expression and phosphorylation of c-Met/HGF receptor in the kidneys of glycerol-induced ARF rats. Results: Glycerol treatment caused severe ARF which invariably led to death of the rats. Repeated administration of HGF protected rats from death caused by severe ARF. Histological analyses revealed that HGF treatment reduced necrosis of tubular cells in the renal cortex. Serum/urine biochemical parameters also showed that renal dysfunction was improved by HGF administration. Intravenous administration of HGF enhanced phosphorylation of the c-Met/HGF receptor and mitogen-activated protein kinase in the kidney. In the vehicle-treated group the renal endogenous HGF concentration decreased and there was no change in c-Met/HGF receptor phosphorylation. Conclusion: These results indicate that HGF effectively accelerated the recovery of renal function and improved survival in glycerol-induced ARF rats.

Adiponectin plays a central role as an antidiabetic and antiatherogenic adipokine. AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 serve as receptors for adiponectin in vitro, and their reduction in obesity seems to be correlated with reduced adiponectin sensitivity. Here we show that adenovirus-mediated expression of AdipoR1 and R2 in the liver of Lepr(-/-) mice increased AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-alpha signaling pathways, respectively. Activation of AMPK reduced gluconeogenesis, whereas expression of the receptors in both cases increased fatty acid oxidation and lead to an amelioration of diabetes. Alternatively, targeted disruption of AdipoR1 resulted in the abrogation of adiponectin-induced AMPK activation, whereas that of AdipoR2 resulted in decreased activity of PPAR-alpha signaling pathways. Simultaneous disruption of both AdipoR1 and R2 abolished adiponectin binding and actions, resulting in increased tissue triglyceride content, inflammation and oxidative stress, and thus leading to insulin resistance and marked glucose intolerance. Therefore, AdipoR1 and R2 serve as the predominant receptors for adiponectin in vivo and play important roles in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism, inflammation and oxidative stress in vivo.

We have previously demonstrated that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) ameliorates glucose metabolism and energy expenditure in obese diabetic db/db mice. In the present study, the effect of BDNF treatment on pancreatic islets of db/db mice was examined, using vehicle-treated pair-fed db/db mice as controls. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (10 mg/kg) or vehicle was subcutaneously administered to male db/db mice for 4 weeks. The food intake of vehicle-treated db/db mice was restricted and precisely synchronized with that of BDNF-treated db/db mice using a pellet pair-feeding apparatus because BDNF decreases food intake in hyperphagic mice. Repetitive administration of BDNF significantly lowered the blood glucose concentration compared with pair-fed vehicle-treated db/db mice. The pancreatic insulin and glucagon concentrations were measured in db/db mice to evaluate the effect of BDNF on the pancreas. Although the insulin concentration in the pancreas of pair-fed vehicle-treated db/db mice was lower than in nondiabetic control +m/+m mice, it was higher in BDNF-treated db/db mice than in vehicle-treated pair-fed db/db mice and comparable to the concentration in +m/+m mice. The glucagon concentration in the pancreas of vehicle-treated pair-fed db/db mice was higher than in +m/+m mice, and BDNF partially decreased the glucagon concentration in the pancreas of db/db mice compared with vehicle. Histologic analyses of pancreatic sections were performed to characterize the mechanism through which BDNF modulates the hormonal concentration in the pancreas of db/db mice. Although there were no significant differences in the number and total area of islets between the BDNF- and vehicle-treated groups, immunostaining with an anti-insulin antibody indicated that the islet beta-cell area in BDNF-treated db/db mice was larger than that in vehicle-treated pair-fed db/db mice. Furthermore, immunostaining with an antiglucagon antibody indicated that BDNF normalized the delocalization of non-beta cells in islets of db/db mice. Electron microscopic images of beta cells indicated a decrease in secretory granules in vehicle-treated pair-fed db/db mice; this change was reversed in BDNF-treated db/db mice and reached a level comparable to that found in +m/+m mice. These findings suggest that BDNF prevents exhaustion of the pancreas in diabetic mice by maintaining the histologic cellular organization of beta cells and non-beta cells in pancreatic islets and restoring the level of insulin-secreting granules in beta cells.

Adiponectin/Acrp30 is a hormone secreted by adipocytes, which acts as an antidiabetic and antiatherogenic adipokine. We reported previously that AdipoR1 and -R2 serve as receptors for adiponectin and mediate increased fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake by adiponectin. In the present study, we examined the expression levels and roles of AdipoR1/R2 in several physiological and pathophysiological states such as fasting/refeeding, obesity, and insulin resistance. Here we show that the expression of AdipoR1/R2 in insulin target organs, such as skeletal muscle and liver, is significantly increased in fasted mice and decreased in refed mice. Insulin deficiency induced by streptozotocin increased and insulin replenishment reduced the expression of AdipoR1/R2 in vivo. Thus, the expression of AdipoR1/R2 appears to be inversely correlated with plasma insulin levels in vivo. Interestingly, the incubation of hepatocytes or myocytes with insulin reduced the expression of AdipoR1/R2 via the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Foxo1-dependent pathway in vitro. Moreover, the expressions of AdipoR1/R2 in ob/ob mice were significantly decreased in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, which was correlated with decreased adiponectin binding to membrane fractions of skeletal muscle and decreased AMP kinase activation by adiponectin. This adiponectin resistance in turn may play a role in worsening insulin resistance in ob/ob mice. In conclusion, the expression of AdipoR1/R2 appears to be inversely regulated by insulin in physiological and pathophysiological states such as fasting/refeeding, insulin deficiency, and hyper-insulinemia models via the insulin/phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Foxo1 pathway and is correlated with adiponectin sensitivity.

Adiponectin (also known as 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein; Acrp30) is a hormone secreted by adipocytes that acts as an antidiabetic and anti-atherogenic adipokine. Levels of adiponectin in the blood are decreased under conditions of obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Administration of adiponectin causes glucose-lowering effects and ameliorates insulin resistance in mice. Conversely, adiponectin-deficient mice exhibit insulin resistance and diabetes. This insulin-sensitizing effect of adiponectin seems to be mediated by an increase in fatty-acid oxidation through activation of AMP kinase and PPAR-alpha. Here we report the cloning of complementary DNAs encoding adiponectin receptors 1 and 2 (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2) by expression cloning. AdipoR1 is abundantly expressed in skeletal muscle, whereas AdipoR2 is predominantly expressed in the liver. These two adiponectin receptors are predicted to contain seven transmembrane domains, but to be structurally and functionally distinct from G-protein-coupled receptors. Expression of AdipoR1/R2 or suppression of AdipoR1/R2 expression by small-interfering RNA supports our conclusion that they serve as receptors for globular and full-length adiponectin, and that they mediate increased AMP kinase and PPAR-alpha ligand activities, as well as fatty-acid oxidation and glucose uptake by adiponectin.

Aim It has been reported previously that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates blood glucose metabolism in rodent obese diabetic models such as C57BL/KsJ-leprdb/leprdb (db/db) mice. BDNF further regulates energy expenditure, possibly through the central and autonomous nervous systems. In this study, we evaluated the effect of BDNF on both lipid and glucose metabolisms to clarify its action mechanism. Methods To control the energy intake, we used a pellet pair-feeding apparatus to synchronize food intake precisely between BDNF-treated and vehicle-treated db/db mice. BDNF (50 mg/kg/week) was subcutaneously injected to male db/db mice twice weekly for 3 weeks, and blood glucose, serum biochemical lipid parameters and tissue weights were measured. Liver triglyceride contents were measured and liver sections were histologically analysed. Results Twice weekly BDNF treatment for 3 weeks significantly lowered blood glucose compared with pellet pair-fed, vehicle-treated db/db mice (294 +/- 109 vs. 529 +/- 91 mg/dL). Serum non-esterified free fatty acid (726 +/- 72 vs. 999 +/- 220 microEq/l), total cholesterol (125 +/- 8 vs. 151 +/- 23 mg/dL) and phospholipid levels (215 +/- 13 vs. 257 +/- 36 mg/dL) of the BDNF-treated db/db mice decreased significantly. Liver weights (1.51 +/- 0.11 vs. 2.05 +/- 0.11 g), liver triglyceride contents (17.5 +/- 1.4 vs. 26.1 +/- 2.1 mg/g) and fatty liver in histological appearance were reduced with BDNF treatment. There were no significant differences in body weights and white adipose tissue weights between the two groups. Conclusions Taken together with the accelerating effect of BDNF on energy metabolism, these findings indicate that BDNF improves glucose and lipid metabolism in obese diabetic animals without enlarging liver or adipose tissues.

It has been previously demonstrated that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates glucose metabolism and energy expenditure in rodent diabetic models such as C57BL/KsJ-leprdb/leprdb(db/db) mice. Central administration of BDNF has been found to reduce blood glucose indb/dbmice, suggesting that BDNF acts through the central nervous system. In the present study we have expanded these investigations to explore the effect of central administration of BDNF on energy metabolism. Intracerebroventricular administration of BDNF lowered blood glucose and increased pancreatic insulin content ofdb/dbmice compared with vehicle-treated pellet pair-feddb/dbmice. While body temperatures of the pellet pair-feddb/dbmice given vehicle were reduced because of restricted food supply in this pair-feeding condition, BDNF treatment remarkably alleviated the reduction of body temperature suggesting the enhancement of thermogenesis. BDNF enhanced norepinephrine turnover and increased uncoupling protein-1 mRNA expression in the interscapular brown adipose tissue. Our evidence indicates that BDNF activates the sympathetic nervous systemviathe central nervous system and regulates energy expenditure in obese diabetic animals.

We previously reported that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates both food intake and blood glucose metabolism in rodent obese diabetic models such as C57BL/KsJ-lepr(db)/lepr(db) (db/db) mice. To elucidate the effect of BDNF on glucose metabolism, we designed a novel pellet pair-feeding apparatus to eliminate the effect of appetite alteration on glucose metabolism. The apparatus was used to synchronize food intake precisely between BDNF-treated and vehicle-treated db/db mice. It was shown using this pellet pair-feeding apparatus that BDNF administered daily (20 mg x kg(-1) x day(-1)) to db/db mice significantly lowered blood glucose compared with pellet pair-fed db/db mice. To evaluate the effect of BDNF on insulin action, we used streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetic mice. In this case, BDNF did not lower blood glucose concentration but rather enhanced the hypoglycemic action of insulin. In hyperglycemic db/db mice, pancreatic insulin content was reduced and glucagon content was increased compared with normoglycemic db/m mice. BDNF administered to db/db mice significantly restored both pancreatic insulin and glucagon content. Histological observations of aldehyde-fuchsin staining and immunostaining with anti-insulin indicated that insulin-positive pancreatic beta-cells were extensively regranulated by BDNF administration. We also studied the effect of BDNF on KK mice, normoglycemic animals with impaired glucose tolerance. In these mice, BDNF administration improved insulin resistance in the oral glucose tolerance test. To elucidate how blood glucose was metabolized in BDNF-treated animals, we investigated the effect of BDNF on the energy metabolism of db/db mice. Body temperature and oxygen consumption of the pellet pair-fed vehicle-treated mice were remarkably lower than the ad libitum-fed vehicle-treated mice. Daily BDNF administration for 3 weeks completely ameliorated both of the reductions. Finally, to clarify its action mechanism, the effect of intracerebroventricular administration of BDNF on db/db mice was examined. Here, a small dose of BDNF was found to be effective in lowering blood glucose concentration. This indicates that BDNF regulates glucose metabolism by acting directly on the brain.