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Osteoarthritis (OA) is a disease of the entire joint but the relationship between pathological events in various joint tissues is poorly understood. We examined concurrent changes in bone, cartilage, and synovium in a naturally occurring equine model of joint degeneration. Joints (n = 64) were grossly assessed for palmar/plantar osteochondral disease (POD) in racehorses that required euthanasia for unrelated reasons and assigned a grade of 0 (n = 34), 1 (n = 17), 2 or 3 (n = 13) using a recognized grading scheme. Synovium, cartilage, and subchondral bone were collected for histological and gene expression analysis. Relations between POD grade, cartilage histological score, and gene expression levels were examined using one-way analysis of variance or Kruskal-Wallis test and Spearman's correlation coefficient with corrections for multiple comparisons. Cartilage histological score increased in joints with POD grade 1 (p = 0.002) and 2 or 3 (p < 0.001) compared to 0. At grade 1, expression of COL1A1, COL2A1, and MMP1 increased and BGN decreased in subchondral bone while expression of BGN and ACAN decreased in cartilage. These changes further progressed at grades 2 and 3. POD grades 2 and 3 were associated with decreased expression of osteoclast inhibitor OPG and increased markers of cartilage degeneration (MMP13, COL1A1). Expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor decreased with POD grade and negatively correlated with cartilage histological score. Synovium showed no histological or transcriptomic changes related to pathology grade. Cartilage degeneration in POD is likely to be secondary to remodeling of the subchondral bone. Limited activation of proinflammatory and catabolic genes and moderate synovial pathology suggests distinct molecular phenotype of POD compared with OA.

Background The epidemiology of equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) is poorly described. Objectives To estimate the prevalence of EMS in native UK ponies and cobs in England and Wales and identify associated risk factors. Study design Cross-sectional study. Methods Breeders registered with UK native pony breed societies and registered riding schools and livery yards within a set radius were invited to participate. All native UK ponies and cobs aged 3-14 years and not diagnosed or being treated for conditions likely to affect insulin regulation at participating premises were eligible. Animals underwent a clinical examination and an oral glucose test while their owner or keeper completed a questionnaire by face-to-face interview. Data were analysed by multilevel uni- and multivariable modelling using insulin concentration and EMS diagnosis as outcomes. Results A total of 354 animals were examined at 64 properties (19 studs, 19 livery yards, 26 riding schools). The overall prevalence of EMS adjusted for clustering within yard was 23.3% (95%CI 17.9%-29.8%). Risk factors associated with a diagnosis of EMS included age, being female, more sedentary main activity, obesity, and shorter periods on pasture during the summer. Compared to the Welsh section A, the other Welsh, Connemara and cob breeds all had decreased odds of EMS. Clinical manifestations of hoof growth ring and supraorbital fat scores of 3/3 were more frequent in EMS ponies and animals with a history of laminitis within the last 5 years (9.7%) were 14.4 (95% CI 5.9-35.3) times more likely to be positive for EMS than those without. Main limitations Results may not be transferable to other breeds or age groups. Conclusions Equine metabolic syndrome is highly prevalent in UK native ponies and cobs with modifiable risk factors including obesity and sedentary activities. Modifying risk factors could help reduce the risk of laminitis in susceptible animals.

Background Vaccination is integral to preventive healthcare. Despite numerous guidelines on equine vaccination, evidence of current vaccination practices is lacking. Objectives To describe current vaccination practices advised by vets treating horses in the United Kingdom (UK) and compare practices with manufacturer datasheets and current guidelines. Study design Cross‐sectional survey. Methods An online questionnaire was distributed using email addresses acquired through professional registration listings and social media, targeting vets who treat horses in the UK. The questionnaire collected demographic data and information regarding vaccination practices and vaccine hesitancy. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed. Results Questionnaires were completed by 304 UK vets working with horses used for leisure (97.4%, n = 296/304), competition (86.2%, n = 262/304), stud‐work (47.7%, n = 145/304) and racing (40.5%, n = 123/304). Variation was identified in vaccine protocols for competition and noncompetition horses. Fifty‐seven per cent (n = 170/298) of respondents reported variation in advised ‘booster’ frequency; most commonly (n = 118) advising a 6‐monthly vaccination in competition horses and annual vaccination in noncompetition horses. Most common vaccination guidelines volunteered were British Horseracing Authority (68.8%, n = 172/250) and Federation Equestre Internationale (66.4%, n = 166/250). Most vaccination practices were not consistent with datasheet guidance. Only 7.7% (n = 23/300) of respondents complied with datasheet timeframes between the second and third vaccination. Adverse events following vaccination in the previous year were encountered by 66% (n = 199/304) of respondents, representing 2760 adverse events; but only 526 (19.1%) cases were reported to the Veterinary Medicines Directorate. Most common reactions were transient, including stiffness (931), localised swelling (835), lethargy (559) and pyrexia (355). 86.4% respondents reported vaccine hesitancy from horse owners, most commonly due to perception of over‐vaccination, cost and concern regarding adverse events. Main limitations Potential selection, respondent and recall bias. The recent Equine Influenza (EI) and Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) outbreaks in the UK may have altered responses. Conclusions Current equine vaccination practices, although complying with competition rules, are mostly noncompliant with datasheet guidelines, potentially risking suboptimal immunity.

Background Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in horses is important to aid empirical treatment decisions and highlight emerging AMR threats. Objective To describe the AMR patterns of common groups of bacteria from clinical submissions from horses in the UK during 2018, and to determine how this varies by sample site and type of submitting veterinary practice. Study design Prospective observational study. Methods All data on bacterial culture and subsequent antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) collected in 2018 from six large equine diagnostic laboratories were included. Resistance patterns were analysed including resistance to 1 or 2 antimicrobial classes, multidrug resistance (MDR), extensively drug resistant (XDR), resistance to highest priority critically important antimicrobials and isolates where there was no readily available treatment for adult horses in the UK. Submitting practices were classified according to whether they treated referral cases or not (first opinion). Comparisons between proportions and resistance for each bacterial group and sample site was performed using Chi-squared (or Fisher's exact test). Results A total of 6,018 bacterial isolates from 4,038 diagnostic submissions were included from respiratory (n = 1555), urogenital (n = 1,010), skin/hair/wound/abscess (n = 753), surgical site infection (SSI) /catheter-related-infection (CRI) /orthopaedic infections (n = 347) and unknown/'other' submissions (n = 373). There were 2,711 Gram-negative isolates and 3,307 Gram-positive isolates. Prevalence of MDR for E. coli was 31.7%, Staphylococcus spp. 25.3% and > 25% for the majority of bacterial isolates from SSI/CRI/orthopaedic submissions. For Enterococcus spp. there was no readily available treatment for adult horses in the UK in 30.2% of positive submissions. MDR was significantly higher from referral hospital than first opinion submissions for the majority of pathogens (except Actinobacillus spp. and Pasteurella spp. and β-haemolytic Streptococcus spp.). Main limitations Since culture and susceptibility results are not systematic analyses based on harmonised methods, selection bias could impact the findings. Conclusions Ongoing surveillance is essential to understand emerging patterns of resistance. MDR is high in SSI/CRI/orthopaedic infections, which is important for hospital biosecurity and guiding treatment decisions. Harmonisation of diagnostic procedures and interpretation of results amongst veterinary laboratories will improve AMR surveillance and data comparison among laboratories.

BackgroundAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a globally important one health threat. The impact of resistant infections on companion animals, and the potential public health implications of such infections, has not been widely explored, largely due to an absence of structured population-level data.ObjectivesWe aimed to efficiently capture and repurpose antimicrobial susceptibility test (AST) results data from several veterinary diagnostic laboratories (VDLs) across the United Kingdom to facilitate national companion animal clinical AMR surveillance. We also sought to harness and genotypically characterize isolates of potential AMR importance from these laboratories.MethodsWe summarized AST results for 29,330 canine and 8,279 feline Enterobacteriaceae isolates originating from companion animal clinical practice, performed between April 2016 and July 2018 from four VDLs, with submissions from 2,237 United Kingdom veterinary practice sites.ResultsEscherichia coli (E. coli) was the most commonly isolated Enterobacteriaceae in dogs (69.4% of AST results, 95% confidence interval, CI, 68.7–70.0) and cats (90.5%, CI 89.8–91.3). Multi-drug resistance was reported in 14.1% (CI 13.5–14.8) of canine and 12.0% (CI 11.1–12.9) of feline E. coli isolates. Referral practices were associated with increased E. coli 3rd generation ≤ cephalosporin resistance odds (dogs: odds ratio 2.0, CI 1.2–3.4). We selected 95 E. coli isolates for whole genome analyses, of which seven belonged to sequence type 131, also carrying the plasmid-associated extended spectrum β-lactamase gene blaCTX–M–15. The plasmid-mediated colistin resistance gene mcr-9 was also identified for the first time in companion animals.ConclusionsLinking clinical AMR data with genotypic characterization represents an efficient means of identifying important resistance trends in companion animals on a national scale.

Background One Health is particularly relevant to the Horn of Africa where many people’s livelihoods are highly dependent on livestock and their shared environment. In this context, zoonoses may have a dramatic impact on both human and animal health, but also on country economies. This scoping review aimed to characterise and evaluate the nature of zoonotic disease research in the Horn region. Specifically, it addressed the following questions: (i) what specific zoonotic diseases have been prioritised for research, (ii) what data have been reported (human, animal or environment), (iii) what methods have been applied, and (iv) who has been doing the research? Methodology/principal findings We used keyword combinations to search online databases for peer-reviewed papers and theses. Screening and data extraction (disease, country, domain and method) was performed using DistillerSR. A total of 2055 studies focusing on seven countries and over 60 zoonoses were included. Brucellosis attracted the highest attention in terms of research while anthrax, Q fever and leptospirosis have been comparatively under-studied. Research efforts did not always align with zoonoses priorities identified at national levels. Despite zoonoses being a clear target for ‘One Health’ research, a very limited proportion of studies report data on the three domains of human, animal and environment. Descriptive and observational epidemiological studies were dominant and only a low proportion of publications were multidisciplinary. Finally, we found that a minority of international collaborations were between Global South countries with a high proportion of authors having affiliations from outside the Horn of Africa. Conclusions/significance There is a growing interest in zoonoses research in the Horn of Africa. Recommendations arising from this scoping review include: (i) ensuring zoonoses research aligns with national and global research agendas; (ii) encouraging researchers to adopt a holistic, transdisciplinary One Health approach following high quality reporting standards (COHERE, PRISMA, etc.); and (iii) empowering local researchers supported by regional and international partnerships to engage in zoonoses research., Author summary Zoonoses are diseases that are transmissible between animals and humans. Some emerging or re-emerging zoonoses, like avian influenza, regularly make the headlines in international media. Others, like rabies or echinococcosis, which mainly affect poor communities, attract much less attention, and are considered neglected by the World Health Organisation (WHO). In the Horn of Africa, many people live in close proximity to livestock and depend on them for food and income. Their frequent interaction with animals increases the risk of contracting zoonoses. In our work, we have searched for existing research publications on zoonoses in the Horn of Africa to guide future research on most neglected areas. Based on 2055 publications, we have described which zoonoses have been studied where and using which method. Notably, we found that very limited research followed One Health approaches. That implies that separate focus was given to animals or humans and a single method or discipline was used, while the One Health approach advocates for multidisciplinary and multisectoral collaboration to address complex issues like zoonoses. Finally, we identified that a majority of authors were affiliated with countries from the Global North which hinders relevance, equity and sustainability of Global North-Global South research collaborations.

BACKGROUND There is a lack of national population data concerning infectious disease in companion animals. Here, we piloted the feasibility of linking diagnostic laboratories, population surveillance and modern sequencing approaches to extract targeted diagnostic samples from laboratories before they were discarded, as a novel route to better understand national epidemiology of major small animal pathogens. METHODS Samples tested for canine or feline parvovirus were requested from a national veterinary diagnostic laboratory and analysed by Sanger or next generation sequencing. Samples were linked to electronic health data held in the SAVSNET database. RESULTS Sequences obtained from positive samples, together with associated metadata, provided new insights into the recent geographical distribution of parvovirus strains in circulation in the United Kingdom (UK). CONCLUSIONS This collaboration with industry represents a 'National Virtual Biobank' that can rapidly be called on, to efficiently add new layers of epidemiological information of relevance to animal, and potentially human, population health.

Robust evidence supporting strategies for companion animal antimicrobial stewardship is limited, despite frequent prescription of highest priority critically important antimicrobials (HPCIA). Here we describe a randomised controlled trial where electronic prescription data were utilised (August 2018–January 2019) to identify above average HPCIA-prescribing practices (n = 60), which were randomly assigned into a control group (CG) and two intervention groups. In March 2019, the light intervention group (LIG) and heavy intervention group (HIG) were notified of their above average status, and were provided with educational material (LIG, HIG), in-depth benchmarking (HIG), and follow-up meetings (HIG). Following notification, follow-up monitoring lasted for eight months (April–November 2019; post-intervention period) for all intervention groups, though HIG practices were able to access further support (i.e., follow-up meetings) for the first six of these months if requested. Post-intervention, in the HIG a 23.5% and 39.0% reduction in canine (0.5% of total consultations, 95% confidence interval, 0.4-0.6, P = 0.04) and feline (4.4%, 3.4-5.3, P

The lack of population health surveillance for companion animal populations leaves them vulnerable to the effects of novel diseases without means of early detection. We present evidence on the effectiveness of a system that enabled early detection and rapid response to a canine gastroenteritis outbreak in the United Kingdom. In January 2020, prolific vomiting among dogs was sporadically reported in the United Kingdom. Electronic health records from a nationwide sentinel network of veterinary practices confirmed a significant increase in dogs with signs of gastroenteric disease. Male dogs and dogs living with other vomiting dogs were more likely to be affected. Diet and vaccination status were not associated with the disease; however, a canine enteric coronavirus was significantly associated with illness. The system we describe potentially fills a gap in surveillance in neglected populations and could provide a blueprint for other countries.

Background Respiratory disease is a common cause for presentation of working horses to clinics in Ethiopia and a priority concern for owners. Objectives To identify risk factors for and association of pathogens with respiratory signs in working horses. Study design Unmatched case-control study. Methods Cases were those animals recently coughing (last 7 days) or observed with coughing, nasal discharge or altered respiration at the time of examination. A physical exam and respiratory endoscopy were performed including a tracheal wash sample to detect the presence of pathogens and serology performed on blood. An owner questionnaire was administered. Risk factors were determined using multivariable logistic regression. Results Data on 108 cases and 93 unmatched control horses were obtained. Case horses often had underlying lower airway pathology and were significantly more likely to have Streptococcus zooepidemicus detected (OR: 12.4, 95% CI: 3.6-42.4). There was no evidence of a major role for viral respiratory pathogens. Risk factors included completion of strenuous work (OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.2-6.3), drinking from stagnant water sources (OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.0-5.2) or being housed on a cobbled floor (OR: 2.0, 95% CI: 1.1-3.8). There were increased odds of respiratory disease in young and old horses in this population. Main limitations Samples for pathogen detection and cytology were only taken from the trachea. Conclusion S. zooepidemicus, a common commensal, may play a role in clinical respiratory disease in this population.

Antimicrobial stewardship is a cornerstone of efforts to curtail antimicrobial resistance dissemination. However, little is known about factors potentially influencing likelihood of companion animal antimicrobial prescription. Here, we analysed unwell canine (n=155,732 unique dogs, 281,543 consultations) and feline (n=69,236 unique cats, 111,139 consultations) electronic health records (EHRs) voluntarily contributed by 173 UK veterinary practices, using multivariable mixed effects logistic regression. Preventive health-focused owner care decisions including vaccination (dogs: odds ratio, OR 0.93, 95% confidence interval, CI, 0.90-0.95; cats: OR 0.92, CI 0.89-0.95), insurance (dogs: OR 0.87, CI 0.84-0.90; cats: OR 0.82, CI 0.79-0.86) or neutering in dogs (OR 0.90, CI 0.88-0.92) were associated with decreased systemic antimicrobial prescription odds, as were dogs presenting to Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons accredited practices (OR 0.79, CI 0.68-0.92). This large multi-centre companion animal EHR study successfully demonstrated the potential of preventive healthcare and owner engagement to encourage responsible antimicrobial use.

We recently wrote a letter reporting a potential outbreak of prolific vomiting in dogs with prolonged lethargy and inappetence, sometimes with diarrhoea ( VR , 15 February 2020, vol 186, p 191). Data collected by practices participating in the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET) also showed a profound rise in dogs presenting for non-specific gastroenteric disease, probably starting around November 2019 (see Fig 1 of the original letter). Statistical analysis has now confirmed this to be significantly outwith normal seasonal enteric disease fluctuation, therefore constituting an outbreak. Analysis of data submitted by laboratories to SAVSNET did not identify any equivalent increase in known enteric pathogen diagnoses. However, we did observe a regular winter peak in the …

Ultrasonography of the atlanto-occipital (AO) space may be useful as a non-invasive diagnostic tool in neonatal foals. The aims of the study were establish a range of values for ultrasonographic measurements of the AO space in healthy Thoroughbred foals and to compare these variables in healthy foals with foals diagnosed with neonatal maladjustment syndrome (NMS). Ultrasonography of the AO space was performed on 38 healthy Thoroughbred foals and 28 Thoroughbred foals with NMS ≤ 4 days of age. Transverse image spinal cord height ( P = 0.001), width ( P 0.001) and spinal cord cross sectional area ( P 0.001), and longitudinal image dorsoventral diameter of the ventral spinal artery, were significantly smaller in foals with NMS than in healthy foals. Ratios of spinal canal to cord width and cross sectional area were significantly smaller in healthy foals than in foals with NMS ( P 0.001). Spinal canal variables were not significantly different between groups. Several ultrasonographic measurements of the AO space were significantly different between healthy foals and foals with NMS. Further investigation is warranted to investigate the clinical application of this technique.

Pruritus, pharmacosurveillance, skin tumours and flea infestations: Report summary This is the third summary report on pruritus in companion animals collated by the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET).1,2 The present report considers electronic health records (EHRs) captured by the SAVSNET project from 217 voluntary veterinary practices (482 sites) over a 14-month period from 1 May 2018 to 30 June 2019. A detailed description of the methodology used by SAVSNET to capture EHRs has been previously provided.3,4 A total of 1,823,164 consultations were analysed, of which 70.6 per cent were from dogs, 26.2 per cent were from cats, 1.8 per cent were from rabbits, and the remaining 1.4 per cent were from other species, or where species was not recorded. Animals mainly presenting for investigation and/or treatment of pruritus according to the attending veterinary surgeon or nurse comprised 4.7 per cent, …

Background Despite the regularity with which castration is performed, the types of complications and current best practice are unknown. Objectives The objective of this study was to perform a prospective audit of routine equine castrations performed in general practice to determine complication rates and factors associated with them. Study design Multicentre, prospective audit of castrations. Methods Data on castrations were collected on the day of surgery from 18 veterinary practices; 30‐days post‐operatively follow‐up was obtained and complications recorded. Frequency of complications was reported, and multilevel, multivariable logistic regression models used to investigate factors associated with the most common complications of bleeding in the first 24 h, stiffness of gait and/or swelling and discharge and/or infection. Results Data were collected on 495 castrations performed by 53 participating veterinary surgeons. Over two thirds of surgeries were performed outside, 21% were performed under standing sedation and 79% with the horse recumbent. Almost all (98 and 97%) patients received preoperative nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatories (NSAIDs) and antimicrobials, respectively. One or more intraoperative complications were reported in 14.5% of procedures; most common were bleeding and excessive movement. Follow‐up to 30 days was available for 392 equids. One or more complications were reported in 44 castrations (11.2%). Swelling was the most common, then infection and stiffness of gait. Serious complications were rare. Main limitations It is possible that there was bias towards submission of data for procedures where complications occurred. The low complication rates reduced the power to determine factors associated with complications. Minor complications may go unreported by owners and may be underrepresented. Conclusions Overall complications associated with castration are low and mortality rare. Findings from this study can be used as guidelines for practices to perform regular audit to determine if their negative outcomes are comparable or warrant further investigation.

BackgroundUveitis appears to be less prevalent in the UK compared with other parts of the world and studies characterising the disease in the UK are lacking. The objectives of this retrospective study were to describe acute and recurrent cases presenting for management of uveitis in a referral hospital on the North West of England and compare the signalment of horses presenting with uveitis with the equine hospital population during the same period.MethodsMedical records of horses presented to the referral Equine Hospital, University of Liverpool with signs of uveitis between 2008 and 2018 were reviewed and clinical details extracted.ResultsSeventy horses presented with uveitis; 33 were classified as acute and 37 as recurrent cases. Sixteen of the horses were affected bilaterally. More bilateral cases were classified as recurrent than acute (P=0.04). No differences in age or sex were noted between acute and recurrent cases, or between cases and the general hospital population. Warmbloods and Appaloosas were over-represented when compared with the general hospital population (PConclusionWhile relatively uncommon in the UK, uveitis can affect horses from a relatively young age. The disease appears to have a relatively higher frequency than expected in Warmbloods and Appaloosas. It is more likely that a recurrent case will have both eyes affected.

Report summary: • Presentation for investigation and/or treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disease comprised 3.0 per cent, 2.0 per cent and 1.9 per cent of total dog, cat and rabbit consultations respectively between 1 April 2017 and 31 October 2018 • Diarrhoea and vomiting without blood were the most frequently reported GI disease clinical signs (43.0 and 36.6 per cent in dogs, and 35.9 and 37.7 per cent in cats respectively) • The proportion of GI disease consultations which prescribed antibiotics authorised for systemic administration (including oral and injectable formulations) decreased between April 2014 and October 2018 • The proportion of GI disease consultations which dispensed nutraceutical products advertised as being effective at managing primary GI disease (including prebiotics, probiotics etc.) increased between April 2014 and October 2018 • Between January 2011 and August 2018, 13.5 per cent of 20,194 feline faecal samples submitted to UK-based diagnostic laboratories tested positive for presence of Tritrichomonas foetus • The proportion of feline sample submissions testing positive for T.foetus decreased between 2011 and 2018

Background Many diagnostic tests for insulin dysregulation use reference intervals established with an insulin radioimmunoassay (RIA) that is no longer available. A chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA) is commonly used for the measurement of serum insulin concentration in clinical practice but requires further validation, especially at clinically relevant reference intervals. Objectives To evaluate the CLIA for measurement of equine insulin and compare it to the previously validated, but now unavailable RIA. Samples Equine serum samples (n = 78) from clinical and experimental studies. Methods In this experimental study, performance of the CLIA was evaluated using standard variables, including comparison with the RIA. Continuous and binary outcomes were analyzed. Results The CLIA showed good intra-assay (coefficient of variation [CV], 1.8–2.4%) and interassay (CV, 3–7.1%) precision. Acceptable recovery on dilution (100 ± 10%) was achieved only at dilutions

Helminths are common pathogens of equids and anthelmintic resistance is a major issue in cyathostomin species and Parascaris equorum . At the heart of mitigating the impact of increasing anthelmintic resistance levels, is the responsible dissemination and use of these medicines following best practice principles. There is a paucity of information on interactions between horse owners and anthelmintic prescribers and how this shapes control. Here, a study was undertaken to determine opinions and experiences of horse owners as they relate to anthelmintics purchase and implementation of best practice control. An online survey was distributed via email and social media to explore owners’ experiences of purchasing anthelmintics from United Kingdom prescribers, these being veterinarians, suitably qualified persons (SQPs) and pharmacists. Owner responses (n = 494) were analysed statistically to compare answers of respondents grouped according to: (i) from whom they bought anthelmintics (Veterinarians n = 60; SQPs n = 256; Pharmacists n = 42; More than one channel n = 136), and (ii) by which route (Face-to-face n = 234; Telephone n = 31; Online n = 226) they purchased. Owners who purchased from veterinarians predominantly did so face-to-face (81.3%), whilst those that bought from SQPs purchased via face-to-face (48.8%) and online (46.0%) interactions. Those who purchased from pharmacists predominantly bought anthelmintics online (76.2%). Participants who bought from veterinarians were more likely to view certain factors (i.e. time to talk to the supplier, supplier knowledge) as more important than those who purchased from other prescribers. Those who purchased from veterinarians were more likely to be recommended faecal egg count (FEC) test analysis; however, there was high uptake of FEC testing across all groups. There was a low uptake of anthelmintic efficacy testing; regardless of the prescriber type from whom anthelmintics were purchased. Those who purchased from veterinarians were more likely to agree that anthelmintics should be sold as veterinary prescription-only medicines. Those who purchased online (regardless of which type of prescriber they bought from) were less likely to consider prescriber advice or knowledge when deciding which product to buy and indicated that sellers were less likely to raise use of anthelmintics for targeting parasites. Across all groups, many owners stated that they were aware of or used non-chemical control measures such as dung removal and diagnostic FEC testing to target treatments. In summary, there were some differences in the type of advice provided at the point of purchase and this was dependent upon whom anthelmintics were purchased from and by which route they were bought.

Myxomatosis is a highly contagious, frequently fatal viral disease affecting both wild and domesticated European rabbits across many areas of the world. Here we used electronic health records (EHRs) collected from pet rabbits attending a sentinel voluntary network of 191 veterinary practices across Great Britain (GB) between March 2014 and June 2019 to identify new features of this disease's epidemiology. From a total of 89,408 rabbit consultations, text mining verified by domain experts identified 207 (0.23 %) cases where myxomatosis was the only differential diagnosis recorded by the attending practitioner. Cases occurred in all months but February and were distributed across the country. Consistent with studies in wild rabbits, the majority of cases occurred between August and November. However, there was also evidence for considerable variation between years. A nested case control study identified important risk factors for myxomatosis within this pet animal population including season, sex, age, vaccination status and distance to likely wild rabbit habitats. Female entire rabbits were twice as likely to be a case (odds ratio (OR) 1.98, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.26-3.13, p = 0.003), suggesting a novel role for behaviour in driving transmission from wild to domesticated rabbits. Vaccination had the largest protective effect with vaccinated rabbits being 8.3 times less likely to be a case than unvaccinated rabbits (OR = 0.12, 95 % CI 0.06-0.21, p =

Vomiting is a frequent reason why dogs are brought to the veterinary practice, and it is often mild and self-limiting.1 However, recently the Small Animal Veterinary Surveillance Network (SAVSNET) has become aware of reports from veterinary surgeons of acute-onset prolific vomiting in dogs in various parts of the UK. We are working to investigate this potential outbreak. Affected dogs are described as vomiting prolifically (five or more episodes in a 12-hour …

BACKGROUND Evaluation of coagulation status is an important component of critical care. Ongoing monitoring of coagulation status in hospitalised horses has previously been via serial venipuncture due to concerns that sampling directly from the intravenous catheter (IVC) may alter the accuracy of the results. Adverse effects such as patient anxiety and trauma to the sampled vessel could be avoided by the use of an indwelling IVC for repeat blood sampling. OBJECTIVES To compare coagulation parameters from blood obtained by jugular venipuncture with IVC sampling in critically ill horses. STUDY DESIGN Prospective observational study. METHODS A single set of paired blood samples were obtained from horses (n = 55) admitted to an intensive care unit by direct jugular venipuncture and, following removal of a presample, via an indwelling IVC. The following coagulation parameters were measured on venipuncture and IVC samples: whole blood prothrombin time (PT), fresh plasma PT and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and stored plasma antithrombin activity (AT) and fibrinogen concentration. D-dimer concentration was also measured in some horses (n = 22). Comparison of venipuncture and IVC results was performed using Lin's concordance correlation coefficient. Agreement between paired results was assessed using Bland Altman analysis. RESULTS Correlation was substantial and agreement was good between sample methods for all parameters except AT and D-dimers. MAIN LIMITATIONS Each coagulation parameter was tested using only one assay. Sampling was limited to a convenience sample and timing of sample collection was not standardised in relation to when the catheter was flushed with heparinised saline. CONCLUSIONS With the exception of AT and D-dimers, coagulation parameters measured on blood samples obtained via an IVC have clinically equivalent values to those obtained by jugular venipuncture.

There is a general acknowledgement that adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are under-reported in both human and veterinary medical sectors. However, there is little information on which factors influence what veterinary professionals do when an ADR is suspected. A …

This study used a UK trimming protocol to determine whether hoof balance is achieved (as defined by equivalence of geometric proportions) in cadaver limbs (n = 49) and two cohorts of horses (shod, n = 6, and unshod, n = 20; three trimming cycles). To determine equivalence, dorsal hoof wall length (DHWL), distance from the heel buttress to the centre of pressure (HBUT-COP) and distance from dorsal toe to centre of rotation (DT-COR) were calculated as a proportion of bearing border length (BBL) using digital photography. Geometric proportions were tested using Fieller's test of equivalence with limits of difference of 2.8%. In 22 cadaver limbs the location of external COR and COP was also mapped radiographically to the extensor process of the third phalanx and the centre of rotation of the distal interphalangeal joint. Equivalence of geometric proportions was not present following trimming in cadaver limbs or in the two cohorts. Although the dorsal hoof wall to heel wall ratio improved in cadaver and unshod horses after trimming, dorsal hoof wall and lateral heel parallelism was absent in all groups and COP was not consistently in line with the extensor process. Increased COP-COR distance occurred in shod horses and may relate to solar arch flattening. Palmar heel migration, however, occurred more in unshod horses. The study shows that equivalence of geometric proportions as a measure of static hoof balance was not commonly present and widely published measures and ratios of hoof balance rarely occurred in this sample population of horses.

Reasons for performing study: Recurrent colic occurs frequently in the general horse population but little evidence exists about what factors place horses at greater risk of recurrent colic. Objectives: To quantify time-varying and non time-varying risk factors for recurrent colic among horses attended by first-opinion veterinary surgeons in northwest England. Study design: Nested case-control study. Methods: A nested case-control study was conducted on data from a prospective longitudinal cohort study of 127 horses recruited subsequent to an episode of medical colic. Data were collected on management and recurrent colic episodes at 4-monthly intervals by telephone questionnaires. All recurrent colic episodes were selected as cases; controls were unmatched and randomly selected from all horse-time at risk. Data relating to the 30 days prior to the date of colic or control selection were used to determine exposure status. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to determine risk factors for recurrent colic. Results: In total, 59 cases and 177 controls were included. The final model showed that horses that displayed crib-biting/windsucking (odds ratio [OR] 10.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.5-41.0) or weaving behaviour (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.5-10.1) had an increased risk of recurrence of colic. Increasing time at pasture reduced the risk of recurrence (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.99-1.0). A significant interaction was found suggesting that the risk associated with crib-biting/windsucking may be modified by feeding fruit/vegetables; however, further research is required before recommendations for feeding practices can be made. Conclusions: This study suggests that sufficient access to pasture may be an important means of reducing recurrent colic risk. The behavioural risk factors highlight individuals who may be at increased risk of recurrent colic and whose colic prevention strategies should be carefully managed.

†‡ § # Summary Reasons for performing study: The factors associated with outcome following solar foot penetration involving synovial structures treated using endoscopic lavage have not been described in the UK population. Objectives: To provide descriptive data on horses with synovial contamination or sepsis following solar penetration in 4 UK equine referral hospitals and to identify specific factors associated with the outcome. Study design: Retrospective case series. Methods: Data were collected from 4 veterinary hospitals. Follow-up data were obtained via a telephone questionnaire. Two multivariable logistic regression models were generated. Model 1 included all horses with synovial contamination following foot penetration undergoing surgical treatment, with the outcome variable being euthanasia during hospitalisation. Model 2 included all horses surviving anaesthesia, with the outcome variable being failure to return to pre-injury athletic function. Results: Ninety-five horses were included. Overall, 56% of horses survived to discharge and 36% of horses returned to pre-injury athletic function. Model 1 included penetration of the central frog sulcus (odds ratio [OR] 10, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.9–51.8), concurrent distal phalanx involvement (OR 32, 95% CI 2.6–101.9), increasing days to presentation (OR 1.2, 95% CI 1.0–1.3) and hospital. Model 2 included increasing days to presentation (OR 1.1, 95% CI 1.1–1.6), breed (OR 32, 95% CI 2.2–135.4), more than one surgery (OR 5.6, 95% CI 1.0–32.7) and hospital. Conclusions and potential relevance: Synovial involvement following solar foot penetration has a guarded prognosis for survival to discharge and a poor prognosis for return to pre-injury athletic function. Penetration of the central sulcus of the frog and distal phalanx involvement are associated with euthanasia during hospitalisation. Delayed referral and hospitalisation are associated with both euthanasia and failure to return to pre-injury athletic function. Breed and more than one surgery are associated with failure to return to pre-injury athletic function. These data may assist veterinary surgeons and owners to make evidence-based decisions when managing cases with synovial involvement following solar foot penetration.

Summary Reasons for performing study Palmar/plantar osteochondral disease (POD) of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal (Mc/MtPh) joints is common in Thoroughbred racehorses, but there is little information on predilection sites, associated pathologies and clinical signs. Objectives To describe the distribution of POD at post mortem examination and to examine the association of POD with other pathologies and clinical histories. Methods The Mc/MtPh joints of 102 Thoroughbred racehorses were examined post mortem. Gross pathology of associated osteochondral elements, suspensory ligament and flexor tendons was recorded. Clinical data were extracted from computerised records. Relationships between all Mc/MtPh joint pathologies, clinical data and grade of POD in each condyle were determined using multilevel, ordinal logistic regression models. Results Palmar/plantar osteochondral disease was recorded (grade 1–3 in at least one condyle) in 80.4% (95% confidence interval 71–88) of horses. The grade of POD was significantly higher in the forelimb, where the medial condyle had higher grades, than in the hindlimb, where the POD grade was higher in the lateral condyle. There was a significant positive relationship between POD grade and multiple other joint pathologies, whereas grades of linear fissures had a negative relationship with grade of POD. There was no relationship between grade of POD and tendon and suspensory ligament gross pathology, although horses with a history of tendon injury had significantly lower POD grades. Horses that had a clinical history of a Mc/MtPh joint problem had higher POD grades. In addition, horses that had been retired from racing for more than 2 months at the date of death had significantly lower POD grades. Conclusions and potential relevance Palmar/plantar osteochondral disease has specific predilection sites. Horses with a clinical history of Mc/MtPh-associated lameness had higher POD grades, whereas those with a history of superficial digital flexor tendon injury and retired horses had lower grades. The progression of POD and its ability to heal requires further evaluation.

Risk factors for large colon volvulus (LCV) in the horse have not been previously reported. Knowledge of these risk factors may allow the introduction of measures that could be taken to minimise the incidence of LCV.

Background Feline calicivirus (FCV) is an important pathogen of cats for which vaccination is regularly practised. Long-term use of established vaccine antigens raises the theoretical possibility that field viruses could become resistant. This study aimed to assess the current ability of the FCV-F9 vaccine strain to neutralise a randomly collected contemporary panel of FCV field strains collected prospectively in six European countries. Methods Veterinary practices (64) were randomly selected from six countries (UK, Sweden, Netherlands, Germany, France and Italy). Oropharyngeal swabs were requested from 30 (UK) and 40 (other countries) cats attending each practice. Presence of FCV was determined by virus isolation, and risk factors for FCV shedding assessed by multivariable logistic regression. Phylogenetic analyses were used to describe the FCV population structure. In vitro virus neutralisation assays were performed to evaluate FCV-F9 cross-reactivity using plasma from four vaccinated cats. Results The overall prevalence of FCV was 9.2%. Risk factors positively associated with FCV shedding included multi-cat households, chronic gingivostomatitis, younger age, not being neutered, as well as residing in certain countries. Phylogenetic analysis showed extensive variability and no countrywide clusters. Despite being first isolated in the 1950s, FCV-F9 clustered with contemporary field isolates. Plasma raised to FCV-F9 neutralized 97% of tested isolates (titres 1:4 to 1:5792), with 26.5%, 35.7% and 50% of isolates being neutralized by 5, 10 and 20 antibody units respectively. Conclusions This study represents the largest prospective analysis of FCV diversity and antigenic cross-reactivity at a European level. The scale and random nature of sampling used gives confidence that the FCV isolates used are broadly representative of FCVs that cats are exposed to in these countries. The in vitro neutralisation results suggest that antibodies raised to FCV-F9 remain broadly cross-reactive to contemporary FCV isolates across the European countries sampled.

The aim of this study was to determine practices, attitudes and experiences of UK prescribers of anthelmintics for horses and livestock. A questionnaire was sent by direct email to groups licenced to prescribe these medicines. These were veterinarians, Suitably Qualified Persons (SQPs, registered with the Animal Medicines Training Regulatory Authority) and veterinary pharmacists. The survey was also advertised through social media. It comprised questions relating to demographics, training experiences, current prescribing practices, as well as personal opinions on anthelmintic selection, diagnostics and anthelmintic resistance. A total of 193 veterinarians and 326 SQPs were included in final analysis. Pharmacists were excluded from detailed analysis due to the low numbers that responded (n = 3). The results indicated that SQP participants were more likely to receive post-certification parasitology training than the veterinarians, and that both channels consulted similar sources for information about helminths and their control (paper articles in journals, online sources). The SQP participants stated a higher frequency of face-to-face interactions with clients/customers (96.1%) than the veterinarians (76.4%), who stated a higher frequency of telephone interactions (55.1% and 73.5%, respectively). Veterinarians were more likely to state that there were specific factors that limited interactions with their clients (54.1%) than SQPs (19.6%), such as competition from other suppliers. SQP participants considered a wider range of factors as important when deciding on which anthelmintic to recommend (i.e. knowledge of specific parasites, knowledge of specific anthelmintics, discussion of measures to avoid anthelmintic resistance and time to talk with clients/customers); however, the veterinarian participants were more likely to consider the results of diagnostic tests. While discussions about anthelmintic resistance were stated with similar frequency in both groups, less frequent were specific discussions about anthelmintic sensitivity testing. In-house faecal egg count analysis was more likely to be available from those that prescribed anthelmintics for equines alone, compared to prescribers who dispensed anthelmintics for livestock alone or livestock and equines. The SQP participants indicated that they felt a large number of organisations were responsible for ensuring that anthelmintics are used responsibly, whilst veterinarian participants were more likely to place responsibility on the prescribers alone. Taken together, these findings provide an insight into how prescribers of anthelmintics in the UK interact with their clients/customers before and at the point of sale and act as a unique source of information on how best practice advice pertaining to sustainable helminth control is disseminated by the various prescribing channels.

Grazing livestock and equines are at risk of infection from a variety of helminths, for which the primary method of control has long been the use of anthelmintics. Anthelmintic resistance is now widespread in a number of helminth species across the globe so it is imperative that best practice control principles be adopted to delay the further spread of resistance. It is the responsibility of all who prescribe anthelmintics (in the UK, this being veterinarians, suitably qualified persons (SQPs) and pharmacists) to provide adequate information on best practice approaches to parasite control at the point of purchase. Poor uptake of best practice guidelines at farm level has been documented; this could be due to a lack of, or inappropriate, advice at the point of anthelmintics purchase. Therefore, the aim here was to evaluate levels of basic knowledge of helminthology, best practice guidelines and dispensing legislation among veterinarians and SQPs in the UK, through a Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) test, that was distributed online via targeted emails and social media sites. For each respondent, the percentage correct was determined (for the MCQ test overall and for subsections) and the results analysed initially using parametric and non-parametric statistics to compare differences between prescribing channels. The results showed that channels generally performed well; veterinarians achieved a mean total percentage correct of 79.7% (range 34.0-100%) and SQPs, a mean total percentage correct of 75.8% (range 38.5-100%) (p = 0.051). The analysis indicated that veterinarians performed better in terms of knowledge of basic helminthology (p = 0.001), whilst the SQP group performed better on legislation type questions (p = 0.032). There was no significant difference in knowledge levels of best practice between the two channels. Multivariable linear regression analysis showed that veterinarians and those answering equine questions only performed significantly better than those answering all questions. Based on information gaps identified by analysis of individual questions, a number of areas for improvement in knowledge transfer to both channels are suggested to improve the quality of advice at the point of anthelmintics purchase.

Summary Reasons for performing study: Feed supplements are commonly used by owners to alleviate headshaking; however, randomised, controlled trials are required to assess their efficacy. Objective: To determine the efficacy of a feed supplement for alleviation of the clinical signs of headshaking using a randomised, blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Methods: Using a crossover design, 44 horses previously diagnosed with chronic idiopathic headshaking received both the supplement and a matching placebo per os for 28 days with a washout period between of 14 days. Video recordings were taken at rest and exercise prior to the study and at the end of both periods of treatment. The degree of headshaking was assessed in a blinded, randomised manner by 2 veterinary surgeons. At the same time points, owners completed a questionnaire to assess the severity of headshaking signs. A Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to compare the scores while on supplement and placebo. Results: Using the video assessments, there was no significant difference between scores while on supplement compared with placebo (P = 0.7). Using the questionnaire responses, there was no significant difference between scores for any activity when the placebo and the supplement were compared with each other. However, owners reported significant improvement during all activities for both placebo and supplement compared with pretreatment scores. Conclusions and potential relevance: The supplement offered no benefit over a placebo in alleviating the clinical signs of headshaking. There appeared to be a significant proxy placebo effect when the outcome was based on subjective owner perception of clinical signs. This study demonstrated no beneficial effect of this supplement on the clinical signs of headshaking. The study did show a significant placebo effect, thereby highlighting the necessity of properly conducted, randomised controlled trials, with blinding, to assess true treatment effects in trials in animals.

The pattern of long-term survival and specific factors associated with long-term survival have not previously been evaluated in horses with a strangulating large colon volvulus (LCV).

The increase in the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance has resulted in both human and veterinary antimicrobial use coming under increased scrutiny. The aim of this study was to characterise antimicrobial prescribing patterns in small-animal veterinary practices in the UK. A cross-sectional survey of UK small animal veterinarians was undertaken. A postal questionnaire to evaluate antimicrobial prescribing habits was sent to 900 clinicians. Data were collected on the clinicians, their practices and their sources of information regarding antimicrobials and their use. Respondents were asked if they would prescribe antimicrobials to animals described in four clinical scenarios, and, if so, to provide details of the prescription(s). Questionnaires were completed by 51% of the veterinarians. Only 3.5% of clinicians reported that their practice had an antimicrobial use policy. Penicillins were most commonly prescribed in three clinical scenarios, and 1st generation cephalosporins were most commonly prescribed in a scenario about canine pyoderma. In one scenario, fluoroquinolones and 3rd generation cephalosporins accounted for 10% and 13% of prescriptions respectively. Five percent of all prescriptions were under the recommended dose and 20% were over the recommended dose. Overall, 2.3% of prescriptions were not licensed for use in dogs or cats in the UK. Associations between the use of various antimicrobial drugs and independent variables were analysed using multivariable logistic regression models. Off-license prescriptions and inaccurate dosing of antimicrobials by small-animal clinicians in the UK appears to occur. Antimicrobial use guidelines are rare in small animal practice. The introduction of such guidelines has been shown to lead to more appropriate use of antimicrobials and is therefore recommended.

Highlights ► Canine coronavirus prevalence in 4 kennels and shelters varied from 5.3% to 33.3%. ► Transmission pathways were demonstrated by quantitative PCR and sequencing. ► A small number of persistently shedding dogs may contribute to maintenance of infection. ► CECoV may be a marker for hygiene and biosecurity., Previous studies have suggested that kennelled dogs are more likely to test positive for CECoV than household pets. Here we describe both cross sectional and longitudinal studies in two rescue kennels and two boarding kennels, together with molecular diagnostics, to provide a new insight into the epidemiology of CECoV. Prevalence of CECoV in the cross sectional studies tended to be higher in the rescue kennels (13.8% and 33.3%) than the boarding kennels (5.3% and 13.5%). In each kennel, type I CECoV was more prevalent than type 2 CECoV. The mean quantity of type I detected was equivalent to 6.3 × 108 gc/gm (range = 5 × 106, 8.5 × 1011), compared to 1.3 × 108 gc/gm (range = 3 × 106, 2.4 × 1010) for type II. In one rescue shelter where dogs were followed longitudinally, infection was significantly associated with accommodation block as well as the length of stay (increased risk of CECoV per week in residence of ×1.9). Of those animals sampled on two or more occasions, none tested positive on arrival, and 54.5% later shed CECoV, suggesting that infection may have been acquired within the kennel. Shedding patterns and sequence analysis suggested both types I and II CECoV were maintained in this population by a combination of introductions into the shelter and within-shelter transmission. The findings suggest that some kennel environments may be important in maintaining CECoV infection in the population. We also propose that the diversity of viruses like CECoV in these populations may provide a novel surrogate marker for the success of biosecurity.

Summary Reasons for performing study: The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistant bacteria such as antimicrobial-resistant and extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli represents a significant problem for human and veterinary medicine. Despite this, the risk factors for faecal carriage of such bacteria by horses in the UK, particularly those in the wider community, have not been well described. Objectives: To characterise the risk factors for faecal carriage of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli amongst horses in the mainland UK. Methods: A cross-sectional study of horses recruited by 65 randomly selected equine veterinary practices was conducted, with a faecal sample collected and self-administered questionnaire completed by the horse owner. Faecal samples were cultured for antimicrobial-resistant E. coli, with isolates confirmed as E. coli having their antimicrobial resistance profile determined. Multilevel, multivariable logistic regression models were used to investigate risk factors for the carriage of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli in the sample population. Results: Faecal samples and completed questionnaires were obtained for 627 horses located on 475 premises. Recent hospitalisation, contact with specific types of nonequid animals, the type of premises, the surrounding land use, the reason for veterinary treatment received in the last 6 months and antimicrobial treatment in the previous 10 days were identified as risk factors for many of the antimicrobial-resistance outcomes considered. Being stabled on the same yard as a recently hospitalised horse was identified as a risk factor for increased risk of carriage of ESBL-producing E. coli. Conclusions and potential relevance: Increasing antimicrobial resistance may have significant health implications for the horse population of Great Britain. This form of epidemiological investigation highlights potential risk factors that may be controlled to limit the extent of the problem.

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) refers to the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence from research for the care of an individual patient. Central to the adoption of EBM is both producing and identifying the best possible evidence for a particular intervention or therapy. This article identifies and reviews the approaches to producing and identifying the best possible evidence that is necessary for the full acceptance of stem cell therapies in the horse and reviews the approaches that will allow future clinical studies in stem cell therapies to provide the best evidence for determining efficacy.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The frequency of recurrent colic in the UK equine general practice population is previously unreported. Elucidating risk factors for recurrent colic could provide a basis for clinical decision making and interventions. OBJECTIVES: To determine the incidence rate of and risk factors for recurrent colic. HYPOTHESES: Horse management, prophylactic health care and innate behaviour contribute to the risk of recurrent colic. METHODS: A cohort of 127 horses was enrolled at the point of a veterinary-diagnosed medical colic episode. Participating owners completed a baseline and 3 follow-up telephone questionnaires over one year. Clinical details of each colic episode were collected with data on management, behaviour and preventive healthcare. Incidence was calculated using time at risk data; non-time varying covariates were assessed for association with recurrent colic using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: The recurrence rate was 50 colic events/100 horse years at risk (HYAR). Including only veterinary attended recurrent colic episodes the incidence was 35 colic events per 100 HYAR. A multivariable logistic regression model was built to explore non-time varying risk factors for recurrence collected from baseline data. The model showed that horses that have a known dental problem (OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.3, 23.1) or crib-bite/windsuck (OR 12.1, 95% CI 1.4, 108.1) were at increased risk of recurrence during the year following a colic event. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The incidence of recurrence in horses following a medical episode of colic is high in this population and represents a welfare concern. The incidence rate can be used to compare intervention efficacy in similar populations. Identified risk factors could provide the basis for management interventions or highlight at risk individuals.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Epiploic foramen entrapment (EFE) has been associated with reduced post operative survival compared to other types of colic but specific factors associated with reduced long-term survival of these cases have not been evaluated in a large number of horses using survival analysis. OBJECTIVE: To describe post operative survival of EFE cases and to identify factors associated with long-term survival. METHODS: A prospective, multicentre, international study was conducted using clinical data and long-term follow-up information for 126 horses diagnosed with EFE during exploratory laparotomy at 15 clinics in the UK, Ireland and USA. Descriptive data were generated and survival analysis performed to identify factors associated with reduced post operative survival. RESULTS: For the EFE cohort that recovered following anaesthesia, survival to hospital discharge was 78.5%. Survival to 1 and 2 years post operatively was 50.6 and 34.3%, respectively. The median survival time of EFE cases undergoing surgery was 397 days. Increased packed cell volume (PCV) and increased length of small intestine (SI) resected were significantly associated with increased likelihood of mortality when multivariable analysis of pre- and intraoperative variables were analysed. When all pre-, intra- and post operative variables were analysed separately, only horses that developed post operative ileus (POI) were shown to be at increased likelihood of mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Increased PCV, increased length of SI resected and POI are all associated with increased likelihood of mortality of EFE cases. This emphasises the importance of early diagnosis and treatment and the need for improved strategies in the management of POI in order to reduce post operative mortality in these cases. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The present study provides evidence-based information to clinicians and owners of horses undergoing surgery for EFE about long-term survival. These results are applicable to university and large private clinics over a wide geographical area.

Summary Reasons for performing study: Traumatic injuries are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the horse and consequently pose a serious threat to horses' wellbeing. To date, there have been no published studies assessing the frequency of injuries in the general horse population of the UK. Objectives: To obtain information regarding husbandry management strategies and injury prevalence in horses aged ≤15 years, with the aim of identifying predisposing risk factors for injury. Methods: A postal questionnaire was distributed to a randomly selected sample of horse owners across north-west England, Midlands and north Wales. Factors associated with injury were assessed using univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis performed with the binary outcome variable defined as whether or not the horse had sustained an injury within the previous 12 months. Results: A usable questionnaire response rate of 68% (652/953) was achieved. Forty percent of horses had sustained a traumatic injury within the past year, of which 62% occurred in the field and 13% during ridden exercise. Factors identified as being associated with an increased risk of traumatic injury included the following: breed other than cob or pony (P = 0.001), shorter duration of ownership (P = 0.002), being turned out with an increasing number of horses (P = 0.001), being used for competitive (P = 0.001) or Parelli (P = 0.006) purposes. Stabling at all times during the spring (P = 0.005), the use of wood fencing in paddocks (P = 0.05) and being prone to becoming distressed if left alone in a field (P = 0.04) were also found to be associated with an increased risk of injury. Stabling at all times during winter was associated with a decreased risk of injury (P = 0.006). Conclusions and potential relevance: Risk factors for sustaining injuries have been identified in association with management practices. This information may be used to educate owners regarding management of their horse(s) in order to prevent injury.

Summary Reasons for performing study: Previous studies suggest that owners underestimate or incorrectly recognise or report health problems in geriatric horses. However, few studies have directly compared owner-reported and veterinary assessed disease. Objectives: To compare the findings of veterinary clinical examination of geriatric horses with owner-reported clinical signs and disease. Methods: A total of 200 horses aged ≥15 years were randomly selected to receive a veterinary examination, from responses to a cross-sectional postal questionnaire survey. Veterinary examinations were performed within 2 months of questionnaire return, and agreement between owner-reported data and veterinary clinical findings was assessed. Results: Owners under-reported many clinical signs and disease conditions detected on veterinary clinical examination. For example, dental abnormalities (detected in 95.4% of horses, reported by 24.5% of owners); cardiac murmurs (detected in 20% of horses, reported by 0.5% of owners); lameness (present in 50% of horses, reported by 23% of owners) and hoof abnormalities (detected in 80% of horses, reported by 27% of owners). Agreement between owner-reported and veterinary assessed respiratory disease (Kappa 0.02–0.2), body condition score (Kappa 0.24) and coat abnormalities (Kappa 0.42) was poor, fair and moderate, respectively. Range of motion (ROM) of the tarsal and metacarpophalangeal joints was lower in horses with owner-reported osteoarthritis (P = 0.005 and

There have been few studies evaluating the efficacy of knowledge-transfer methods for livestock owners in developing countries, and to the authors' knowledge no published work is available that evaluates the effect of knowledge-transfer interventions on the education of working equid users. A cluster-randomised controlled trial (c-RCT) was used to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of three knowledge-transfer interventions on knowledge-change about equid health amongst rural Ethiopian working equid users. Groups were exposed to either; an audio programme, a village meeting or a diagrammatic handout, all of which addressed identical learning objectives, and were compared to a control group which received no intervention. Thirty-two villages were randomly selected and interventions randomly assigned. All participants in a village received the same intervention. Knowledge levels were assessed by questionnaire administration. Data analysis included comparison of baseline data between intervention groups followed by multilevel linear regression models (allowing for clustering of individuals within village) to evaluate the change in knowledge between the different knowledge-transfer interventions. A total of 516 randomly selected participants completed the pre-intervention questionnaire, 504 of whom undertook the post-dissemination questionnaire, a follow up response rate of 98%. All interventions significantly improved the overall 'change in knowledge' score on the questionnaire compared to the control, with the diagrammatic handout (coefficient (coef) 9.5, S.E. = 0.6) and the village meeting (coef 9.7, S.E. = 0.6) having a significantly greater impact than the audio programme (coef 4.8, S.E. = 0.6). Covariates that were different at baseline, and which were also significant in the final model, were age and pre-intervention score. Although they had a minimal effect on the intervention coefficients there was a significant interaction between age and intervention. This study should aid the design of education materials for adult learning for working equid users and other groups in developing countries.

Diarrhoea is a common and multi-factorial condition in dogs, the aetiology of which is often incompletely understood. A case–control study was carried out to compare the carriage of some common canine enteric pathogens (enteric coronavirus, parvovirus, distemper, endoparasites, Campylobacter and Salmonella spp.), as well as lifestyle factors such as vaccination history, diet and contact with other species, in dogs presenting at first opinion veterinary practices with and without diarrhoea. Multivariable conditional logistic regression showed that dogs in the study which scavenged or had had a recent change of diet (OR 3.5, p = 0.002), had recently stayed in kennels (OR 9.5, p = 0.01), or were fed a home-cooked diet (OR 4, p = 0.002) were at a significantly greater risk of diarrhoea, whilst being female (OR 0.4, p = 0.01), currently up to date with routine vaccinations (OR 0.4, p = 0.05) and having contact with horse faeces (OR 0.4, p = 0.06) were associated with a reduced risk. None of the pathogens tested for was a significant factor in the final multivariable model suggesting that in this predominantly vaccinated population, diarrhoea may be more associated with lifestyle risk factors than specific pathogens.

To describe the prevalence and risk factors for clinical signs of disease and owner-reported health or welfare issues of aged horses in Queensland, Australia. Owners of horses were contacted via an equestrian organisation in Queensland and asked to complete a questionnaire about their horses aged 15 years and older, to gain information about clinical signs observed in the horse and disease history. Owners were asked to identify health or welfare issues they felt were important in aged horses. Owners were able to identify many clinical signs of disease, with 83% of horses having at least one reported clinical sign of disease. Muscle stiffness (33%), lameness (28%), ocular discharge (22%), change in hair coat (22%) and skin problems (21%) were the most commonly reported signs. Increasing age was a risk factor for the presence of clinical signs of disease. Ponies had an increased risk of both laminitis and hirsutism, whereas Thoroughbreds had an increased risk of stereotypies, wounds, weight loss and musculoskeletal signs. Owners reported a known disease or disorder in their horses less frequently than the clinical signs of disease. Owners reported weight loss (28%), arthritis/lameness (24%) and teeth/dental care (18%) as the most important health issues, followed by welfare issues (8%). Owners demonstrated concern for the health and welfare of their aged horses, but the lack of appropriate recognition of the significance of clinical signs and limited veterinary care suggest a need for increased client communication and veterinarian-client interaction.