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Neuronale Plastizitat ist ein zentraler Mechanismus von Lernen und Erinnerung. Beeintrachtigungen neuronaler Plastizitat werden als zentraler pathophysiologischer Mechanismus einer Vielzahl neuropadiatrischer und neurologischer Krankheitsbilder diskutiert. Moglichkeiten und Perspektiven des Einsatzes der Neuromodulation bei neuropadiatrischen und neurologischen Erkrankungen mit veranderter neuronaler Plastizitat. Darstellung und Diskussion der Untersuchungen neuronaler Plastizitat bei Patienten mit Entwicklungsstorungen anhand eigener Arbeiten bei Patienten mit RASopathien, Autismus-Spektrum-Storung (ASS) und Gilles-de-la-Tourette-Syndrom (GTS). Neurophysiologische Untersuchungen von Patienten mit RASopathien, ASS und GTS untermauern die pathophysiologische Relevanz abnormer neuronaler Plastizitat bei diesen Erkrankungen. Die transkranielle Magnetstimulation (TMS) findet dabei als neuromodulatives Verfahren Anwendung und kann sowohl in der Evaluation als auch Induktion neuronaler Plastizitat eingesetzt werden. Neuronale Plastizitat scheint ein wesentlicher pathophysiologischer Faktor bei Entwicklungsstorungen zu sein. Fur den Einsatz bei Kindern mit neuropadiatrischen Krankheitsbildern eroffnen innovative Techniken neue Moglichkeiten fur eine individualisierte TMS-Anwendung.

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a prefabricated carbon-composite ankle foot orthoses (c-AFOs) on gait parameters in children with unilateral spastic cerebral palsy (USCP) exhibiting a drop foot pattern.Sixteen ambulatory children with USCP and a drop foot pattern were included (mean age: 9 years; gross motor function classification system: I = 14, II = 2) and three-dimensional gait analysis was applied under randomly assigned conditions (barefoot; shoe; c-AFO). Kinematics, kinetics, time-distance parameters and gait indices were investigated.Effects on the drop foot pattern were investigated while the children walked in shoes only. The shoes already increased the maximum ankle dorsiflexion in swing (p= 0.004) and initiated more knee flexion during single support (p⩽ 0.013). Compared to shoe walking, the c-AFO led to additional benefits regarding further ankle dorsiflexion during swing (p⩽ 0.001) and initial contact (p0.001), ankle movement during loading response (p= 0.002), improved the sole angle during initial contact (p0.001) and during mid stance (p= 0.015). Plantarflexion and ankle power generation during push-off decreased when wearing the c-AFO (p⩽ 0.008).Investigated c-AFOs are beneficial for improving drop foot patterns in children with USCP. Significant effects on pathological barefoot pattern were already achieved with the child's regular shoes. This could be considered in clinical decision processes. In comparison to shoe walking, c-AFO additionally improved foot clearance and normalized initial heel contact. The third rocker deteriorates with the c-AFO. Since kinematics improved with the orthoses during swing and early stance phase, c-AFOs might reduce tripping and falling caused by a drop foot during long distance walking.

Synaptic plasticity in the form of long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) is considered to be the neurophysiological correlate of learning and memory. Impairments are discussed to be one of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of developmental disorders. In so-called RASopathies [e.g., neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1)], neurocognitive impairments are frequent and are affected by components of the RAS pathway which lead to impairments in synaptic plasticity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) provides a non-invasive method to investigate synaptic plasticity in humans. Here, we review studies using TMS to evaluate synaptic plasticity in patients with RASopathies. Patients with NF1 and Noonan syndrome (NS) showed reduced cortical LTP-like synaptic plasticity. In contrast, increased LTP-like synaptic plasticity has been shown in Costello syndrome. Notably, lovastatin normalized impaired LTP-like plasticity and increased intracortical inhibition in patients with NF1. TMS has been shown to be a safe and efficient method to investigate synaptic plasticity and intracortical inhibition in patients with RASopathies. Deeper insights in impairments of synaptic plasticity in RASopathies could help to develop new options for the therapy of learning deficits in these patients.

The co-occurrence of motor and imitation disabilities often characterises the spectrum of deficits seen in patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Whether these seemingly separate deficits are inter-related and whether, in particular, motor deficits contribute to the expression of imitation deficits is the topic of the present study and was investigated by comparing these deficits' cross-sectional developmental trajectories. To that end, different components of motor performance assessed in the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment and imitation abilities for facial movements and non-meaningful gestures were tested in 70 subjects (aged 6-29 years), including 36 patients with high-functioning ASD and 34 age-matched typically developed (TD) participants. The results show robust deficits in probands with ASD in timed motor performance and in the quality of movement, which are all independent of age, with one exception. Only diadochokinesis improves moderately with increasing age in ASD probands. Imitation of facial movements and of non-meaningful hand, finger, hand finger gestures not related to social context or tool use is also impaired in ASD subjects, but in contrast to motor performance this deficit overall improves with age. A general imitation factor, extracted from the highly inter-correlated imitation tests, is differentially correlated with components of neuromotor performance in ASD and TD participants. By developmentally fractionating developmentally stable motor deficits from developmentally dynamic imitation deficits, we infer that imitation deficits are primarily cognitive in nature.

Aim We aimed to investigate the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity by paired associative stimulation (PAS) in patients with high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome (HFA/AS). Method PAS with an interstimulus interval between electrical and transcranial magnetic stimulation of 25 ms (PAS25) was performed in patients with HFA/AS (n=9; eight males, one female; mean age 17y 11mo, SD 4y 5mo) and in typically developing age-matched volunteers (n=9; five males, four females; mean age 22y 4mo, SD 5y 2mo). The amplitude of motor-evoked potentials was measured before PAS25, immediately after stimulation, and 30 minutes and 60 minutes later. A PAS protocol adapted to individual N20 latency (PASN20+2) was performed in six additional patients with HFA/AS. Short-interval intracortical inhibition was measured using paired-pulse stimulation. Results In contrast to the typically developing participants, the patients with HFA/AS did not show a significant increase in motor-evoked potentials after PAS25. This finding could also be demonstrated after adaptation for N20 latency. Short-interval intracortical inhibition of patients with HFA/AS was normal compared with the comparison group and did not correlate with PAS effect. Interpretation Our results show a significant impairment of LTP-like plasticity induced by PAS in individuals with HFA/AS compared with typically developing participants. This finding is in accordance with results from animal studies as well as human studies. Impaired LTP-like plasticity in patients with HFA/AS points towards reduced excitatory synaptic connectivity and deficits in sensory-motor integration in these patients.

Background Motor learning takes place in several phases. Animal experiments suggest that synaptic plasticity plays an important role in acquisition of motor skills, whereas retention of motor performance is most likely achieved by other mechanisms. Objective/hypothesis This study compared two spacing approaches and investigated the time course of synaptic plasticity after spaced motor practice (MP). Methods Twenty subjects performed a ballistic thumb flexion task in sessions of 6 × 10 minutes or 12 × 5 minutes. We measured peak acceleration of the target movement throughout the experiment and cortical excitability more than 60 minutes after MP via transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). After a retention period, both parameters were re-evaluated. Results Mean peak acceleration of the target movement significantly increased (6 × 10 minutes: 21.61 m/s 2 versus 30.80 m/s 2 , P = .002; 12 × 5 minutes: 18.52 m/s 2 versus 29.65 m/s 2 , P = .01). In both training groups, motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes of the trained muscle continuously increased after MP (6 × 10 min: 0.93 mV versus 1.57 mV, P = .19; 12 × 5 min: 0.90 mV versus 1.76 mV, P = .004). After the retention period, motor performance was still significantly enhanced, whereas MEP amplitudes were no longer significantly increased. Conclusions These findings do not provide evidence that in small scale motor learning the duration of practice and rest influences behavioral improvement or induction of cortical plasticity. Our study demonstrates that cortical plasticity after MP displays a dynamical time course that might be caused by different mechanisms.

Background Repetitive peripheral magnetic stimulation (rPMS) has been applied to musculoskeletal pain conditions. Since recent data show that migraine and tension-type headache (TTH) might be closely related to peripheral muscular pain in the neck and shoulder region (supporting the concept of the trigemino-cervical complex (TCC)), this pilot study explores the acceptance of rPMS to the upper trapezius muscles in migraine (partly in combination with TTH). Methods We used rPMS to stimulate active myofascial trigger points (aTrPs) of the upper trapezius muscles in 20 young adults suffering from migraine. Acceptance was assessed by a standardized questionnaire, whereas self-rated effectiveness was evaluated by headache calendars and the Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS). Algometry was performed to explore the local effect of rPMS on the muscles. Results Acceptance of rPMS was shown in all subjects without any adverse events, and rPMS had a statistically significant impact on almost every parameter of the headache calendar and MIDAS. Among others, the number of migraine attacks ( p p = 0.001) significantly decreased regarding pre- and post-stimulation assessments. Accordingly, 100.0% of subjects would repeat the stimulation, while 90.0% would recommend rPMS as a treatment option for migraine. Conclusions rPMS might represent a promising tool to alleviate migraine symptoms within the context of myofascial pain. This might be due to stimulation-dependent modulation of the peripheral sensory effect within the TCC in migraine. However, sham-controlled studies with larger and more homogeneous cohorts are needed to prove a potential beneficial effect. Ethics Committee Registration Numbers : 356-14 and 447/14

We aimed to translate the Caregiver Priorities and Child Health Index of Life with Disabilities (CPCHILD) questionnaire into German and to evaluate its reliability and validity by studying the association between CPCHILD scores and gross motor function as measured by the gross motor function classification system (GMFCS) in children with cerebral palsy (CP). The original CPCHILD questionnaire and manual were translated and back translated. It was administered to primary caregivers of persons with CP (GMFCS levels III–V) and was completed a second time 2 weeks after the first to measure test–retest reliability ( n = 17). Primary caregivers of 68 children with CP; GMFCS level III ( n = 14), level IV ( n = 28), and level V ( n = 26) completed the questionnaire. Mean total CPCHILD scores across GMFCS levels were 67.1 ± 14.9 for GMFCS level III, 56.6 ± 11.8 for level IV, and 44.3 ± 12.9 for level V. Good correlation ( r = − 0.56) was observed between GMFCS and total scores test–retest reliability showed intraclass correlation coefficients between 0.4 and 0.9. The German CPCHILD yielded similar test–retest reliability and score distributions across the GMFCS level as the original version. The best correlations were observed for domains that are close to the functional deficits.

Aim Early unilateral brain lesions can lead to a persistence of ipsilateral corticospinal projections from the contralesional hemisphere, which can enable the contralesional hemisphere to exert motor control over the paretic hand. In contrast to the primary motor representation (M1), the primary somatosensory representation (S1) of the paretic hand always remains in the lesioned hemisphere. Here, we report on differences in exercise-induced neuroplasticity between individuals with such ipsilateral motor projections (ipsi) and individuals with early unilateral lesions but ‘healthy’ contralateral motor projections (contra). Method Sixteen children and young adults with congenital hemiparesis participated in the study (contralateral [Contra] group: n=7, four females, three males; age range 10–30y, median age 16y; ipsilateral [Ipsi] group: n=9, four females, five males; age range 11–31y, median age 12y; Manual Ability Classification System levels I to II in all individuals in both groups). The participants underwent a 12-day intervention of constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT), consisting of individual training (2h/d) and group training (8h/d). Before and after CIMT, hand function was tested using the Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT) and diverging neuroplastic effects were observed by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and magnetoencephalography (MEG). Statistical analysis of TMS data was performed using the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test for pair-wise comparison; for fMRI standard statistical parametric and non-parametric mapping (SPM5, SnPM3) procedures (first level/second level) were carried out. Statistical analyses of MEG data involved analyses of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests. Results While MEG demonstrated a significant increase in S1 activation in both groups (p=0.012), TMS showed a decrease in M1 excitability in the Ipsi group (p=0.036), but an increase in M1 excitability in the Contra group (p=0.043). Similarly, fMRI showed a decrease in M1 activation in the Ipsi group, but an increase in activation in the M1–S1 region in the Contra group (for both groups p

Objective: Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive disorder of GABA degradation leading to elevations in brain GABA and γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). The effect of chronically elevated GABA and GHB on cortical excitability is unknown. We hypothesized that use-dependent downregulation of GABA receptor expression would promote cortical disinhibition rather than inhibition, predominantly via presynaptic GABAergic mechanisms. Methods: We quantified the magnitude of excitation and inhibition in primary motor cortex (M1) in patients with SSADH deficiency, their parents (obligate heterozygotes), age-matched healthy young controls, and healthy adults using single and paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Results: Long interval intracortical inhibition was significantly reduced and the cortical silent period was significantly shortened in patients with SSADH deficiency compared to heterozygous parents and control groups. Conclusions: Since long interval intracortical inhibition and cortical silent period are thought to reflect GABAB receptor–mediated inhibitory circuits, our results point to a particularly GABAB-ergic motor cortex dysfunction in patients with SSADH deficiency. This human phenotype is consistent with the proposed mechanism of use-dependent downregulation of postsynaptic GABAB receptors in SSADH deficiency animal models. Additionally, the results suggest autoinhibition of GABAergic neurons. This first demonstration of altered GABAB-ergic function in patients with SSADH deficiency may help to explain clinical features of the disease, and suggest pathophysiologic mechanisms in other neurotransmitter-related disorders. Neurology® 2012;79:47–54

Macrocerebellum is a rare finding characterized by an abnormally large cerebellum. Only few patients with a syndromal or isolated macrocerebellum have been reported so far. This article aims to categorize the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, quantitate the macrocerebellum by volumetric analysis, characterize the neurological and dysmorphic features and cognitive outcome, and report the results of genetic analyses in children with macrocerebellum. All MR images were qualitatively evaluated for infratentorial and supratentorial abnormalities. Volumetric analysis was performed. Data about neurological and dysmorphic features, outcome, and genetic analysis were collected from clinical histories and follow-up examinations. Five patients were included. Volumetric analysis in three patients confirmed large cerebellar size compared to age-matched controls. MR evaluation showed that thickening of the cortical gray matter of the cerebellar hemispheres is responsible for the macrocerebellum. Additional infratentorial and supratentorial abnormalities were present in all patients. Muscular hypotonia, as well as impaired motor and cognitive development, was found in all patients, with ocular movement disorders in three of five patients. The five patients differed significantly in terms of dysmorphic features and involvement of extracerebral organs. Submicroscopic chromosomal aberrations were found in two patients. Macrocerebellum is caused by thickening of the cortical gray matter of the cerebellar hemispheres, suggesting that cerebellar granule cells may be involved in its development. Patients with macrocerebellum show highly heterogeneous neuroimaging, clinical, and genetic findings, suggesting that macrocerebellum is not a nosological entity, but instead represents the structural manifestation of a deeper, more basic biological disturbance common to heterogeneous disorders.

Aims: Macrocerebellum is a very rare finding and implies an abnormally large cerebellum. Only few patients with a syndromal or isolated macrocerebellum have been reported so far. We aim to evaluate the MRI spectrum, objectify the macrocerebellum by volumetric analysis, characterize neurological/dysmorphic features and cognitive outcome and report genetic analysis. Methods: All images were qualitatively evaluated for infra- and supratentorial abnormalities. A volumetric analysis was performed using MRI Studio software. Data about neurological and dysmorphic features, outcome and genetic analysis were collected from clinical history and follow-up examination. Results: 5 children were included (median age 2.5 years, range 1–3 years; 3 males, 2 females). The volumetric analysis in 3 patients confirmed the increased cerebellar size compared to age matched controls (in the 2 other patients the volumetric analysis could not be performed). The MRI evaluation showed that an enlargement of the cortical gray matter of the cerebellar hemispheres was mainly contributing to the macrocerebellum. Different additional infra- and supratentorial abnormalities were present in all patients. Muscular hypotonia, ocular movement disorders and impaired motor and cognitive development were found in all children. 3 of 5 patients suffered from epileptic seizures. The 5 children differed significantly in terms of dysmorphic features and involvement of extra-cerebral organs. Chromosomal anomalies were found in 2 patients (a deletion and a duplication on different chromosomes). Conclusion: Based on the literature and our study, all patients with a macrocerebellum have variable impairments in motor and cognitive development. However, the additional neuroimaging findings, dysmorphic features, involvement of extra-cerebral organs and genetic results are highly heterogeneous, suggesting that macrocerebellum is not a clinical and neuroimaging entity.

Objective: Noonan syndrome (NS; OMIM 163950) is a developmental disorder characterized by short stature, congenital heart defects, facial anomalies and variable learning deficits. NS is caused by activating mutations in various components of the RAS-MAPK pathway. Recent in vitro studies demonstrated impairment of synaptic plasticity caused by RAS-MAPK pathway hyperactivity. We therefore intended to find a clue to synaptic plasticity in patients with NS. Methods: We investigated 8 patients with Noonan syndrome and an age and gender matched control group using paired associative stimulation (PAS). Changes in MEP amplitudes were assessed immediately after as well as 30 and 60 minutes after PAS. Results: We demonstrated that MEP amplitudes of healthy controls significantly increased from 1.03±0.18 to 1.81±0.61 mV (p=0.006), which was not seen in patients with Noonan-Syndrome (0.88±0.1 to 1.2±0.49 mV, p=0.103) and that there was a significant difference between both groups 60min after PAS (p=0.044). Conclusions: Our study provides first evidence that synaptic plasticity is impaired in patients with NS which is probably a consequence of constitutive activity of the RAS-MAPK pathway. Significance: This is the first study that indicated impaired synaptic plasticity in patients with a RAS-pathway disorder.

Background One major attribute of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is the variability of motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes, to which variations of coil positioning may contribute. Navigated TMS allows the investigator to retrieve a stimulation site with an accuracy of 2.5 mm and to retain coil position with low spatial divergence during stimulation. Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate whether increased spatial constancy of the coil using a navigational system decreases the variability of MEP amplitudes and increases their reproducibility between different points in time of investigation. Methods We investigated eight healthy subjects (mean age 23.8 ± 1.2 years, range 22-25, four women, four men) at three different points in time with and without an optically tracked frameless navigational device, respectively. Input-output curves, motor threshold, and MEP amplitudes were recorded. We calculated the coefficient of variation as statistical parameter of variability. Reproducibility between different sessions was assessed via the MEP amplitude. Results The coefficient of variance of MEP amplitudes did not show a distinct difference between navigated and non-navigated TMS in input-output curves. MEP amplitudes, indicating reproducibility, did not significantly differ between sessions with and without navigated TMS, either. Conclusions Our results do not support the hypothesis that increased spatial constancy using a navigational system improves variability and reproducibility of MEP amplitudes. Variability of MEPs might mainly be due to not influenceable neurophysiologic factors such as undulant cortical excitability and spinal desynchronization.

Background Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is one of the most common genetic disorders causing learning disabilities by mutations in the neurofibromin gene, an important inhibitor of the RAS pathway. In a mouse model of NF1, a loss of function mutation of the neurofibromin gene resulted in increased gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated inhibition which led to decreased synaptic plasticity and deficits in attentional performance. Most importantly, these defictis were normalized by lovastatin. This placebo-controlled, double blind, randomized study aimed to investigate synaptic plasticity and cognition in humans with NF1 and tried to answer the question whether potential deficits may be rescued by lovastatin. Methods In NF1 patients (n = 11; 19–44 years) and healthy controls (HC; n = 11; 19–31 years) paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to study intracortical inhibition (paired pulse) and synaptic plasticity (paired associative stimulation). On behavioural level the Test of Attentional Performance (TAP) was used. To study the effect of 200 mg lovastatin for 4 days on all these parameters, a placebo-controlled, double blind, randomized trial was performed. Results In patients with NF1, lovastatin revealed significant decrease of intracortical inhibition, significant increase of synaptic plasticity as well as significant increase of phasic alertness. Compared to HC, patients with NF1 exposed increased intracortical inhibition, impaired synaptic plasticity and deficits in phasic alertness. Conclusions This study demonstrates, for the first time, a link between a pathological RAS pathway activity, intracortical inhibition and impaired synaptic plasticity and its rescue by lovastatin in humans. Our findings revealed mechanisms of attention disorders in humans with NF1 and support the idea of a potential clinical benefit of lovastatin as a therapeutic option.