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ObjectiveTo examine sex differences in age-standardised rates (ASR) of overall and drug-specific drug poisoning deaths in Ireland between 2004 and 2017.DesignRepeated cross-sectional study.SettingDrug poisoning deaths in Ireland.ParticipantsNational Drug-Related Deaths Index and pharmacy claims database (Primary Care Reimbursement Service-General Medical Services) data from 2004 to 2017.Outcome measuresThe primary outcome was trends in drug poisoning death rates by sex. The secondary outcomes were trends in drug poisoning death rates involving (1) any CNS (Central Nervous System) depressants, (2) ≥2 CNS depressants and (3) specific drugs/drug classes (eg, prescription opioids, benzodiazepines, antidepressants, alcohol, cocaine and heroin) by sex. Joinpoint regression was used to examine trends, stratified by sex, in the ASR of drug poisoning deaths (2004–2017), change points over time and average annual percentage changes (AAPCs) with 95% CI.ResultsIncreased ASR for all drug poisoning deaths from 6.86 (95% CI 6.01 to 7.72) per 100 000 in 2004 to 8.08 (95% CI 7.25 to 8.91) per 100 000 in 2017 was mainly driven by increasing deaths among men (AAPC 2.6%, 95% CI 0.2 to 5.1), with no significant change observed among women. Deaths involving ≥2 CNS depressants increased for both men (AAPC 5.6%, 95% CI 2.4 to 8.8) and women (AAPC 4.0%, 95% CI 1.1 to 6.9). Drugs with the highest significant AAPC increases for men were cocaine (7.7%, 95% CI 2.2 to 13.6), benzodiazepines (7.2%, 95% CI 2.9 to 11.6), antidepressants (6.1%, 95% CI 2.4 to 10.0) and prescription opioids (3.5%, 95% CI 1.6 to 5.5). For women, the highest AAPC was for antidepressants (4.2%, 95% CI 0.2 to 8.3), benzodiazepines (3.3%, 95% CI 0.1 to 6.5) and prescription opioids (3.0%, 95% CI 0.7 to 5.3).ConclusionDrugs implicated in drug poisoning deaths vary by sex. Policy response should include prescription monitoring programmes and practical harm reduction information on polydrug use, especially CNS depressant drugs.

Purpose Many studies show that incarcerated populations have higher rates of problem drug use than the general population. The purpose of this paper is to analyse trends in addiction treatment demand in prisons in Ireland from 2009 to 2014 using available national surveillance data in order to identify any implications for practice and policy. Design/methodology/approach National surveillance data on treatment episodes for problem drug and alcohol use from 2009 to 2014, collected annually by the National Drug Treatment Reporting System (NDTRS), were analysed. Findings In total, 6 per cent of all treatment episodes recorded by the NDTRS between 2009 and 2014 were from prison services. The number of prison service treatment episodes increased from 964 in 2009 to 1,063 in 2014. Opiates were the main reason for treatment, followed by alcohol, cocaine and cannabis. The majority (94–98 per cent) of treatment episodes involved males (median age of 29 years) and low educational attainment, with 79.5–85.1 per cent leaving school before completion of second level. The percentage of treatment episodes with a history of ever injecting drugs increased from 20.9 per cent in 2009 to 31.0 per cent in 2014. Practical implications This study can help policy development and service planning in addiction treatment in prison as it provides an insight into the potential needs of incarcerated populations. It also provides a baseline from which to measure any changes in provision of treatment in prison over time. Originality/value This is the first study to analyse treatment episodes in prison using routine surveillance data in Ireland. Analysis of these data can provide useful information, not currently available elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: New psychoactive substances (NPS) have hedonic effects that may lead to dependence. Headshops selling NPS increased in number in Ireland from late 2009. Legislation was enacted in May and August of 2010 that caused their closure. It is unknown whether such events impact the rate of NPS use disorders. DESIGNS AND METHODS: We conducted a population-based study using the Irish national database of episodes of addiction treatment between 2009 and 2012. We examined trends in the rate of NPS-related treatment episodes among young adults. Joinpoint trend analysis software was used to identify significant changes in trend. RESULTS: Of the 31 284 episodes of addiction treatment commenced by adults aged 18 to 34 years, 756 (2.4%) were NPS related. In 2012, the 12-month moving average rate had fallen 48% from its peak in 2010, from 9.0/100 000 to 4.7/100 000. Joinpoint analysis indicated that the rate of NPS related episodes increased by 218% (95% confidence interval 86 to 445, P = 0.001) every 4 months until the first third of 2010. From that point, the rate declined by 9.8% (95% confidence interval -14.1 to -5.4, P = 0.001) per 4-month period. There was no significant trend change in the rate of non-NPS related treatment episodes. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Over the 2 years after the enactment of prohibition-styled legislation targeting NPS and headshops, the rate of NPS related addiction treatment episodes among young adults declined progressively and substantially. We found no coinciding trend change in the rate of episodes linked to other drug groups.

Supervised consumption ensures patients take methadone as prescribed and prevents diversion, however, the influence of supervised consumption on retention is unclear. We examined association between supervised consumption and retention across multiple treatment episodes.Cohort study of persons experiencing ≥1 MMT episodes in primary care (2004-2010), excluding ongoing episodes at the start of follow-up. Length of treatment episodes based on methadone prescriptions, retention classified as no interruption in prescribed methadone lasting7 days. When a patient did not receive a new prescription within seven days after the end of coverage of a prescription, they were considered to have ceased treatment. We evaluated the relationship between supervised consumption and time to discontinuation of treatment using proportional hazards gamma frailty models to account for recurrent MMT episodes. Age, gender, median daily methadone dose, and comorbidities included as potential confounders.6393 patients experienced 19,715 treatment episodes over the six-year follow-up period. A J-shaped relationship was observed; having between 20 and 60% of methadone scripts supervised (compared to20%) associated with reduced time to discontinuation (20-39% HR=0.88, 95% CI 0.81-0.95; 40-59%: HR=0.87, 95% CI 0.81-0.94). Beyond a threshold of 60%, retention reduced (60-79% of scripts: HR=1.28, 95% CI 1.20-1.36;80% of scripts: HR=3.59, 95% CI 3.38-3.81). Median daily dose between 60 and 120mg/per day, and multiple treatment episodes also associated with longer time to discontinuation of treatment.A J-shaped relationship was observed between supervised consumption and retention in treatment. Additionally, patients experiencing multiple treatment episodes tend to stay in treatment for progressively longer periods of time.

Background Comprehensive information on the incidence and duration of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection for people who inject drugs (PWID) in Ireland is not available. We created an incidence curve of injecting drug use in Ireland and subsequently estimated incidence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Methods Anonymised data from the National Drug Treatment Reporting System (NDTRS) were used to identify all people who inject drugs (PWIDs) and who entered drug treatment for the first time between 1991 and 2014. A curve, estimating the incidence of injecting, was created to plot PWIDs by year of commencing injecting. The curve was adjusted for missing data on PWIDs in treatment and for PWIDs who were never treated. An adjustment was made to account for injectors who had never shared injecting equipment. The incidence of HCV infection and chronic infection in PWIDs was estimated by applying published rates. Results Between 1991 and 2014, 14,320 injectors were registered on NDTRS. The majority were young (median age 25 years), male (74%), lived in Dublin (73%) and injected an opiate (e.g. heroin) (94%). The estimated total number of injectors up to the end of 2014 was 16,382. An estimated 12,423 (95% CI 10,799-13,161) were infected with HCV, and 9,317 (95% CI 8,022-9,996) became chronically infected. The estimated annual number of new HCV infections among PWIDs increased steeply from the late 1970s and peaked in 1998. By 2014, almost 30% of injectors were estimated to have been infected for over 20 years. Conclusions This is the first comprehensive national estimate of the incidence of HCV in PWIDs in Ireland and will inform planning and developing appropriate health care services. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s41124-017-0024-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background The increasing use of pregabalin and the presence of pregabalin in poisoning deaths, particularly with opioids, highlight it as a potential drug of abuse. In this study we examined factors associated with pregabalin-positive poisoning deaths (PPPD) between 2013 and 2016 in Ireland. Methods Data were extracted from the National Drug-Related Deaths Index (NDRDI). Analysis included univariate and multivariate logistic regression to estimate unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI) for factors associated with PPPD (primary outcome) by logistic regression models for the total sample and stratified by gender. Results Pregabalin was present on 240 (16 %) toxicology reports of 1489 poisoning deaths; significantly rising from 15 (4.5 %) in 2013 to 94 (26 %) in 2016. Women (AOR 2.69, 95 % CI: 1.95–3.70), opioid misuse (AOR 1.74, 95 % CI: 1.17–2.59), in receipt of treatment for problem drug use (AOR 1.95, 95 % CI: 1.33–2.86) and year of death (2016 vs 2013) (AOR 7.95, 95 % CI: 4.58–13.79) were associated with increased odds of PPPD. Alcohol dependence was associated with reduced odds of PPPD (AOR 0.59, 95 % CI: 0.41–0.85). For men, opioid misuse, in receipt of treatment for problem drug use, and year of death were associated with increased odds of PPPD, while alcohol dependence was associated with reduced odds of PPPD. For women, in receipt of treatment for problem drug use and year of death were associated with increased odds of PPPD. Conclusions Enhanced training to prescribers and treatment providers on the potential risks associated with pregabalin, particularly among people who use drugs, is required.

By accessing addiction treatment services recorded in routine national drug treatment data, the characteristics of Irish Travellers were analyzed to understand their needs and develop policies to tackle issues faced by this community. The number of Traveller cases accessing services increased by 163% between 2007 and 2010. Alcohol and opiates were the most common problem substances reported. Traveller women reported high rates of problem opiate use and risky injecting behaviors, contrary to the perception that problem substance use is a predominantly male issue. This presents a challenge to services to provide targeted, effective services to Travellers with problem substance use.

Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate deaths among individuals with epilepsy recorded on the National Drug-Related Deaths Index (NDRDI). Method A descriptive analysis of individuals with a known history of epilepsy in the NDRDI from 2004 to 2013 was undertaken. Results Between 2004 and 2013, 225 (2%) of the recorded cases had a documented history of epilepsy, 82 (36%) of whom had epilepsy recorded as the cause of death. Of these 82 deaths, the majority were male (60–73%) and half (median age) were aged 47 years or younger. A post mortem toxicology report was available for 65 (79%) of these deaths, of which over two thirds (44–68%) did not have any antiepileptic drugs present on toxicology. Over two thirds of these deaths, (31–70%) were among people known to be alcohol dependent. Conclusion The high percentage of individuals with a diagnosis of alcohol dependency that died as a result of epilepsy and who have no antiepileptic drugs in their system at the time of their death, highlights the need for preventative measures for this at-risk group.

To assess whether risk of death increases during periods of treatment transition, and investigate the impact of supervised methadone consumption on drug-related and all-cause mortality.National Irish cohort study.Primary care.A total of 6983 patients on a national methadone treatment register aged 16-65 years between 2004 and 2010.Drug-related (primary outcome) and all-cause (secondary outcome) mortality rates and rate ratios for periods on and off treatment; and the impact of regular supervised methadone consumption.Crude drug-related mortality rates were 0.24 per 100 person-years on treatment and 0.39 off treatment, adjusted mortality rate ratio 1.63 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.66-4.00]. Crude all-cause mortality rate per 100 person-years was 0.51 on treatment versus 1.57 off treatment, adjusted mortality rate ratio 3.64 (95% CI = 2.11-6.30). All-cause mortality off treatment was 6.36 (95% CI = 2.84-14.22) times higher in the first 2 weeks, 9.12 (95% CI = 3.17-26.28) times higher in weeks 3-4, compared with being 5 weeks or more in treatment. All-cause mortality was lower in those with regular supervision (crude mortality rate 0.60 versus 0.81 per 100 person-years) although, after adjustment, insufficient evidence exists to suggest that regular supervision is protective (mortality rate ratio = 1.23, 95% CI = 0.67-2.27).Among primary care patients undergoing methadone treatment, continuing in methadone treatment is associated with a reduced risk of death. Patients' risk of all-cause mortality increases following treatment cessation, and is highest in the initial 4-week period.

The paper by McCormick et al. (2010) provides real-world examples of best practice for implementing alcohol screening and brief intervention (SBI) in primary care. We commend the authors for that and also wish to highlight the additional challenges involved in implementing SBI in primary care among vulnerable populations, especially problem drug users. To explore the scientific evidence on implementing best practice in SBI for problem alcohol use among problem drug users, we conducted a Medline search with the following keywords: setting (primary care),target behaviour (problem alcohol use), population (problem drug users) and implementation strategies (e.g. guidelines, barriers or enablers). The majority of papers we identified concerned the general adult population and we consider this literature in conjunction with that specific to problem drug users, where relevant.

Aim: International research indicates that the role which alcohol plays in accidents tends to be understated in media reports. Evidence suggests that public support for alcohol harm reduction policies would increase if people were better informed about the role of alcohol in serious injuries. We hypothesized that the role of alcohol in Irish accidental deaths is under-reported in the Irish print media. Method: We identified all traumatic and poisoning deaths (excluding suicides) in Ireland during the years 2008 and 2009 where alcohol was mentioned on the death certificate. We conducted an Internet-based search for newspaper reports of these deaths. The content of each report was examined and rated for mention of alcohol's possible role in the individual death. Results: This study demonstrates the under-reporting in Irish newspapers of the role of alcohol in traumatic and poisoning deaths. Where deaths were reported, the role played by alcohol was generally ignored. Conclusion: This represents a missed opportunity to inform the public about the role of alcohol in these deaths. More accurate information would permit the public to make more informed decisions regarding their own behaviour and regarding their support for alcohol harm-reducing strategies.

Background problem alcohol use is common among problem drug users (PDU) and associated with adverse health outcomes. Primary care has an important role in the overall stepped approach to alcohol treatment, especially screening and brief intervention (SBI). Aim To discuss three themes that emerged from an exploration of the literature on SBI for problem alcohol use in drug users attending primary care. Methods material for this discussion paper was gathered from three biomedical databases (PubMed, PsycINFO and Cochrane library), conference proceedings and online resources of professional organisations or national health agencies. Themes discussed in this paper are: (a) the potential of primary care for delivery of alcohol SBIs to PDUs, (b) screening methods and (c) application of brief interventions to PDUs. Although SBI improves health outcomes associated with problem alcohol use in the general population, further research is needed among high-risk patient groups, especially PDUs. Health Research Board 12M embargo - release after 24/08/2012 - AV 21/10/2011 au, ke, ab - kpw10/11/11 Embargo update in line with published version - OR 22/02/2013

OBJECTIVES To identify characteristics that increased the risk of mortality in Ethiopian visceral leishmaniasis patients in a treatment programme managed by Medecins sans Frontieres, in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. METHODS Retrospective review of a cohort of 791 patients treated for visceral leishmaniasis. RESULTS The cohort displayed all the classical signs and symptoms of the disease. The case fatality rate was 18.5% (146) (95% CI: 15.8-21.3%). Logistic regression showed that individuals who experienced at least one episode of vomiting or haemorrhage were more likely to die than those who did not. A subcohort of individuals who tested human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive were more than four times more likely to die than those who tested HIV-negative (OR 4.5, 95% CI: 1.8-11.4). CONCLUSION This study identifies characteristics associated with death in this population and highlights the devastating effect of co-infection with visceral leishmaniasis and HIV in the African context.