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Background and Purpose PGE2 is a major prostanoid that regulates inflammation by stimulating EP1–4 receptors. However, how PGE2 induces an initial inflammatory response to vascular hyper-permeability remains unknown. Here we investigated the role of the PGE2-EP receptor signal in modulating vascular permeability both in vivo and in vitro. Experimental Approach We used a modified Miles assay and intravital microscopy to examine vascular permeability in vivo. Endothelial barrier property was assessed by measuring transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) in vitro. Key Results Local administration of PGE2, an EP2 or EP4 receptor agonist into FVB/NJcl mouse ear skin caused vascular leakage, indicated by dye extravasation. Intravital microscopy and laser Doppler blood-flow imaging revealed that these treatments dilated peripheral vessels and increased local blood flow. Pretreatment with the vasoconstrictor phenylephrine inhibited the PGE2-induced blood flow increase and vascular leakage. In contrast to the EP2 and EP4 receptor agonists, administration of an EP3 receptor agonist suppressed vascular leakage without altering vascular diameter or blood flow. In isolated HUVECs, the EP3 receptor agonist elevated TER and blocked thrombin-induced dextran passage. Inhibiting PKA restored the hypo-permeability induced by the EP3 receptor agonist. Conclusions and Implications Activation of the PGE2-EP2 or -EP4 receptor signal induces vasodilatation in mural cells, resulting in increased local blood flow and hyper-permeability. In contrast, activation of the PGE2-EP3 receptor signal induces a cAMP-dependent enhancement of the endothelial barrier, leading to hypo-permeability. We provide the first evidence that endothelial cells and mural cells cooperate to modulate vascular permeability.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a major prostanoid produced under inflammatory situations. There have been controversial reports showing contractile or relaxant effect of PGE2 on vascular tone in various types of blood vessels. Thus, it is still elusive whether and how PGE2 modulates vascular tone. We here assessed the effects of PGE2 on vascular contractility using different types of vasculatures isolated form rat. In endothelium-denuded aortas and mesenteric arteries, PGE2 (1 nM–10 μM) concentration-dependently enhanced the contraction elicited by K+ (35.4 mM) or norepinephrine (10 nM). In pulmonary arteries, PGE2 did not alter the both-induced contraction. Tail arteries were relaxed by a low dose of PGE2 (1–100 nM), but this response shifted to contraction by the higher dose of PGE2 (300 nM–10 μM). There are four types of PGE2 receptors EP1-4. RT-PCR showed that aortas and mesenteric arteries abundantly expressed EP3, while tail arteries abundantly expressed EP4. We next revealed that selective EP3 agonism enhanced the contraction in mesenteric arteries, whereas EP4 agonism induced relaxation in tail arteries. Taken together, PGE2 causes different contractile responses depending on the type of vascular bed. This phenomenon may be due to the difference in expression pattern and activity of EP receptors.

Lung fibroblasts are responsible for collagen secretion during normal tissue repair and the development of fibrosis. Many other prostaglandins have been reported to regulate collagen synthesis in lung fibroblasts, but the role of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) is unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of PGD2 on type I collagen secretion in human lung fibroblasts. Pretreatment with PGD2 (0.1 – 10 μM, 1 h) significantly attenuated type I collagen secretion to the cell supernatant induced by transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β). Although an agonist on chemoattractant receptor–homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2) did not have any effect, the prostanoid DP–receptor agonist BW245C (0.01 – 1 μM) suppressed TGF-β–induced collagen secretion. PGD2 and BW245C significantly increased intracellular cAMP level. One-hour pretreatment with forskolin (0.1 – 10 μM), dibutyryl-cAMP (0.01 – 1 mM), and the protein kinase A (PKA)-activator N6-phenyl-cyclic AMP (100 μM) significantly reduced TGF-β–induced collagen secretion, while exchange protein activated by cAMP (Epac) activator 8-bromo-2′-Omethyladenosine-3′,5′-cyclic AMP (10 μM) did not affect collagen deposition. These results suggest that PGD2 inhibits TGF-β–induced collagen secretion via intracellular cAMP accumulation through activating DP receptor. Keywords:: prostaglandin D2, lung fibroblast, TGF-β, collagen secretion, prostanoid DP receptor

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily that is highly expressed in enterohepatic tissue, is implicated in bile acid, lipid, and glucose metabolisms. Although recent studies showed that FXR is also expressed in vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, its physiological and/or pathological roles in vasculature tissue remain unknown. The aim of this study is to examine the chronic effect of synthetic FXR agonist GW4064 on vascular contraction and endothelium-dependent relaxation using tissue culture procedure. In cultured rabbit mesenteric arteries, the treatment with 0.1–10 μM GW4064 for 7 days did not influence vascular contractility induced by high K+(15–65 mM), norepinephrine (0.1–100 μM), and endothelin-1 (0.1–100 nM). However, the chronic treatment with GW4064 (1–10 μM for 7 days) dose dependently impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by substance P (0.1–30 nM). In hematoxylin-eosin cross sectioning and en face immunostaining, GW4064 had no effects on the morphology of endothelial and smooth muscle cells. In endothelium-denuded arteries treated with GW4064 (1–10 μM) for 7 days, 3 nM–100 μM sodium nitroprusside-induced vasorelaxation, but not membrane-permeable cGMP analog 8-bromoguanosine-cGMP (8-Br-cGMP; 1–100 μM)-induced vasorelaxation, was significantly impaired. In these GW4064-treated arteries, 1 μM sodium nitroprusside-induced intracellular cGMP elevations were impaired. In RT-PCR, any changes were detected in mRNA expression level of α1- and β1-subunit of soluble guanylyl cyclase. These results suggest that chronic stimulation of FXR impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation, which is due to decreased sensitivity of smooth muscle cells to nitric oxide.

Pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive and fatal lung disease with limited therapeutic options. Although it is well known that lipid mediator prostaglandins are involved in the development of pulmonary fibrosis, the role of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) remains unknown. Here, we investigated whether genetic disruption of hematopoietic PGD synthase (H-PGDS) affects the bleomycin-induced lung inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis in mouse. Compared with H-PGDS naive (WT) mice, H-PGDS-deficient mice (H-PGDS-/-) represented increased collagen deposition in lungs 14 days after the bleomycin injection. The enhanced fibrotic response was accompanied by an increased mRNA expression of inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and cyclooxygenase-2 on day 3. H-PGDS deficiency also increased vascular permeability on day 3 and infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages in lungs on day 3 and 7. Immunostaining showed that the neutrophils and macrophages expressed H-PGDS, and its mRNA expression was increased on day 3and 7 in WT lungs. These observations suggest that H-PGDS-derived PGD2 plays a protective role in bleomycin-induced lung inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis.

Objective In this study, we examined the synergistic effects of the two potent pathogenic factors, platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) to induce vascular hyperplasia using ex vivo organ-culture system. Methods and results In organ-cultured rat tail arteries, concomitant treatment with 100ng/ml PDGF-BB and 300nM ET-1 for 4 days induced medial hyperplasia with increased smooth muscle cell proliferation. Concomitant treatment with PDGF-BB (10–300nM) and ET-1 (30nM–1μM) dose-dependently suppressed contractile responses to high K + and norepinephrine. This dyscontractility was accompanied by decreased α-actin protein expression. In all series of experiments, concomitant treatment with PDGF-BB and ET-1 exhibited stronger effects than sole treatment with PDGF-BB (100ng/ml) or ET-1 (300nM). Western blot analysis revealed that concomitant treatment with PDGF-BB and ET-1 synergistically phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), Akt, and a downstream target of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), p70 ribosomal S6 kinase in cultured artery. Consistently, a MAPK/ERK kinase (MEK) inhibitor, PD98059 (30μM), a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, LY294002, and an mTOR inhibitor, rapamycin (30nM), partially restored PDGF-BB and ET-1-induced hyperplastic changes. Conclusions We evidenced for the first time at tissue level that PDGF-BB and ET-1 synergistically accelerate vascular smooth muscle hyperplastic changes and lose its contractility, at least partially through ERK1/2, Akt, and mTOR activation.