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BACKGROUND The effects of Medicare payment reforms aiming to improve the efficiency and quality of care by establishing greater financial accountability for providers may vary based on the extent and types of other coverage for their patient populations. Providers who are more resource constrained due to a less favorable payer mix face greater financial risks under such reforms. The impact of the expanded Medicare dialysis prospective payment system (PPS) on quality of care in independent dialysis facilities may vary based on the extent of higher payments from private insurers available for managing increased risks. OBJECTIVES To evaluate whether anemia outcomes for dialysis patients in independent facilities differ under the Medicare PPS based on facility payer mix. DESIGN We examined changes in anemia outcomes for 122,641 Medicare dialysis patients in 921 independent facilities during 2009-2014 among facilities with differing levels of employer insurance (EI). We performed similar analyses of facilities affiliated with large dialysis organizations, whose practices were not expected to change based on facility-specific payer mix. RESULTS Among independent facilities, similar modeled trends in low hemoglobin for all 3 facility EI groups in 2009-2010 were followed by increased low hemoglobin during 2012-2014 for facilities with lower EI (P

Rationale & Objective Transitions between dialysis modalities can be disruptive to care. Our goals were to evaluate rates of transition from peritoneal dialysis (PD) to in-center hemodialysis (HD), mortality, and transplantation among incident PD patients in the US Renal Data System from 1996 to 2015 and identify factors associated with these outcomes. Study Design Observational registry-based retrospective cohort study. Setting & Participants Medicare patients incident to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) from January 1, 1996, through December 31, 2011 (for adjusted analyses; through December 31, 2014, for unadjusted analyses), and treated with PD 1 or more days within 180 days of ESRD incidence (n = 173,533 for adjusted analyses; n = 219,787 for unadjusted analyses). Exposure & Predictors Exposure: 1 or more days of PD. Predictors: patient- and facility-level characteristics obtained from Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Form 2728 and other data sources. Outcomes Patients were followed up for 3 years until transition to in-center HD, death, or transplantation. Analytical Approach Multivariable Cox regression was used to estimate hazards over time and associations with predictors. Results Compared with earlier cohorts, recent incident PD patient cohorts had lower rates of death (48% decline) and transition to in-center HD (13% decline). Among many other findings, we found that: (1) rates of transition to in-center HD and death were lowest in the 2008 to 2011 cohort, (2) longer time receiving PD was associated with higher mortality risk but lower risk for transition to in-center HD, and (3) larger PD programs (≥25 vs ≤6 patients) displayed lower risks for death and transition to in-center HD. Limitations Data collected on Form 2728 are only at the time of ESRD incidence and do not provide information at the time of transition to in-center HD, death, or transplantation. Conclusions Rates of transition from PD to in-center HD and death rates for PD patients decreased over time and were lowest in PD programs with 25 or more patients. Implications of the observed improved technique survival warrant further investigation, focusing on modifiable factors of center-level performance to create opportunities for improved patient outcomes., Visual abstract

The transplant community is divided regarding whether substitution with generic immunosuppressants is appropriate for organ transplant recipients. We estimated the rate of uptake over time of generic immunosuppressants using US Medicare Part D Prescription Drug Event (PDE) and Colorado pharmacy claims (including both Part D and non-Part D) data from 2008 to 2013. Data from 26 070 kidney, 15 548 liver, and 6685 heart recipients from Part D, and 1138 kidney and 389 liver recipients from Colorado were analyzed. The proportions of patients with PDEs or claims for generic and brand-name tacrolimus or mycophenolate mofetil were calculated over time by transplanted organ and drug. Among Part D kidney, liver, and heart beneficiaries, the proportion dispensed generic tacrolimus reached 50%−56% at 1 year after first generic approval and 78%−81% by December 2013. The proportion dispensed generic mycophenolate mofetil reached 70%−73% at 1 year after generic market entry and 88%−90% by December 2013. There was wide interstate variability in generic uptake, with faster uptake in Colorado compared with most other states. Overall, generic substitution for tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil for organ transplant recipients increased rapidly following first availability, and utilization of generic immunosuppressants exceeded that of brand-name products within a year of market entry.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Peritoneal dialysis (PD) use increased in the United States with the introduction of a new Medicare prospective payment system in January 2011 that likely reduced financial disincentives for facility use of this home therapy. The expansion of PD to a broader population and facilities having less PD experience may have implications for patient outcomes. We assessed the impact of PD expansion on PD discontinuation and patient mortality. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: A prospective cohort study was conducted of patients treated with PD at 90 days of ESKD. Patients were grouped by study start date relative to the Medicare payment reform: prereform (July 1, 2008 to December 31, 2009; n=10,585), interim (January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2010; n=7832), and reform period (January 1, 2011 to December 31, 2012; n=18,742). Patient characteristics and facility PD experience were compared at baseline (day 91 of ESKD). Patients were followed for 3 years for the major outcomes of PD discontinuation and mortality using Cox proportional hazards models. RESULTS: Patient characteristics, including age, sex, race, ethnicity, rurality, cause of ESKD, and comorbidity, were similar or showed small changes across the three study periods. There was an increasing tendency for patients on PD to be treated in facilities with less PD experience (from 34% during the prereform period being treated in facilities averaging

Objective To evaluate the effect of the Medicare dialysis payment reform on potential disparities in the selection of peritoneal dialysis (PD) for the treatment of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Data Sources Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) ESRD Medical Evidence Form, Medicare claims, and other CMS data for 2008–2013. Study Design We examined the association of patient age, race/ethnicity, urban/rural location, pre-ESRD care, comorbidities, insurance, and other factors with the selection of PD as initial dialysis modality across prereform (2008–2009), interim (2010), and postreform (2011–2013) time periods. Principal Findings Selection of PD increased among diverse patient subgroups following the payment reform. However, the lower PD selection observed with older age, black race, Hispanic ethnicity, less pre-ESRD care, and Medicaid insurance before the reform largely remained in the initial postreform years. Conclusions Despite recent growth in PD, there may be ongoing disparities in access to PD that have largely not been mitigated by the payment reform. There is potential for modifying provider financial incentives to achieve policy goals related to cost and quality of care. However, even with a substantial shift in financial incentives, separate initiatives to reduce existing disparities in care may be needed.

In 2011, Medicare implemented a prospective payment system (PPS) covering an expanded bundle of services that excluded blood transfusions. This led to concern about inappropriate substitution of transfusions for other anemia management methods.Medicare claims were used to calculate transfusion rates among dialysis patients pre- and post-PPS. Linear probability regressions adjusted transfusion trends for patient characteristics.Dialysis patients for whom Medicare was the primary payer between 2008 and 2012.Pre-PPS (2008-2010) versus post-PPS (2011-2012).Monthly and annual probability of receiving one or more blood transfusions.Monthly rates of one or more transfusions varied from 3.8%-4.8% and tended to be lowest in 2010. Annual rates of transfusion events per patient were -10% higher in relative terms post-PPS, but the absolute magnitude of the increase was modest (-0.05 events/patient). A larger proportion received 4 or more transfusions (3.3% in 2011 and 2012 vs 2.7%-2.8% in prior years). Controlling for patient characteristics, the monthly probability of receiving a transfusion was significantly higher post-PPS (β = 0.0034; P0.001), representing an -7% relative increase. Transfusions were more likely for females and patients with more comorbid conditions and less likely for blacks both pre- and post-PPS.Possible underidentification of transfusions in the Medicare claims, particularly in the inpatient setting. Also, we do not observe which patients might be appropriate candidates for kidney transplantation.Transfusion rates increased post-PPS, but these increases were modest in both absolute and relative terms. The largest increase occurred for patients already receiving several transfusions. Although these findings may reduce concerns regarding the impact of Medicare's PPS on inappropriate transfusions that impair access to kidney transplantation or stress blood bank resources, transfusions should continue to be monitored.

Background Medicare implemented a new prospective payment system (PPS) on January 1, 2011. This PPS covers an expanded bundle of services, including services previously paid on a fee-for-service basis. The objectives of the new PPS include more efficient decisions about treatment service combinations and modality choice. Methods Primary data for this study are Medicare claims files for all dialysis patients for whom Medicare is the primary payer. We compare use of key injectable medications under the bundled PPS to use when those drugs were separately billable and examine variability across providers. We also compare each patient's dialysis modality before and after the PPS. Results Use of relatively expensive drugs, including erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, declined substantially after institution of the new PPS, whereas use of iron products, often therapeutic substitutes for erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, increased. Less expensive vitamin D products were substituted for more expensive types. Drug spending overall decreased by ∼$25 per session, or about 5 times the mandated reduction in the base payment rate of ∼$5. Use of peritoneal dialysis increased in 2011 after being nearly flat in the years prior to the PPS, with the increase concentrated in patients in their first or second year of dialysis. Home hemodialysis continued to increase as a percentage of total dialysis services, but at a rate similar to the pre-PPS trend. Conclusion The expanded bundle dialysis PPS provided incentives for the use of lower cost therapies. These incentives seem to have motivated dialysis providers to move toward lower cost methods of care in both their use of drugs and choice of modalities.

Background: Different types of providers often face differing financial incentives for providing similar types of care. This may have implications for payment systems that target improvements in care requiring multiple types of providers. Objectives: The objective of this study was to determine how hospitalization influences the anemia of Medicare patients with chronic renal failure, where anemia is treated under a prospective payment system during hospitalizations and under a fee-for-service system during outpatient renal dialysis. Methods: We examined the effects of time in hospital and reason for hospitalization on levels of anemia among 87,263 Medicare renal dialysis patients with a hospital stay of 3 days or more during 2004. Medicare claims were used to measure changes in hematocrit between the month before and the month after hospital discharge, and to classify admissions with a high risk of anemia. Multilevel models were used to study variation in outcomes across providers. Results: Longer time in the hospital was associated with worsening anemia. As expected, larger declines in hematocrit occurred following admissions for conditions or procedures with a high risk of anemia. However, we observed a similar effect of time in the hospital for admissions both with and without a high risk of anemia. There were relatively large differences in anemia outcomes across both individual hospitals and physicians. Conclusions: Hospitalization-related anemia increases the need for care by outpatient renal dialysis providers. Efforts to improve care through payment system design are more likely to be successful if financial incentives are aligned across care settings.

Implementation of the Medicare ESRD prospective payment system (PPS) and changes to dosing guidelines for erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) in 2011 appear to have influenced use of injectable medications among dialysis patients. Given historically higher ESA and vitamin D use among black patients, we assessed the effect of these policy changes on racial disparities in the management of anemia and mineral metabolism. Analyses used cross-sectional monthly cohorts for a period-prevalent sample of 7384 maintenance hemodialysis patients at 132 facilities from the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS) Practice Monitor. Linear splines with knots at each policy change were used in survey-weighted regressions to estimate time trends in hemoglobin (Hgb), erythropoietin (EPO) dose, intravenous (IV) iron dose, ferritin, transferrin saturation (TSAT) concentration, parathyroid hormone (PTH), IV vitamin D dose, cinacalcet use, and phosphate binder use. From August 2010 to December 2011, mean Hgb declined from 11.5 to 11.0 g/dl (P0.21). Mean EPO and vitamin D dose and serum PTH levels remained higher in blacks. Despite evidence that anemia and mineral metabolism management practices have changed significantly over time, there was no immediate indication of racial disparities resulting from implementation of the PPS or ESA label change. Further studies are needed to examine effects among patient and facility subgroups.

Vascular access failure causes substantial morbidity to hemodialysis patients. We sought to identify factors determining survival of the permanent vascular access in use at the start of end-stage renal disease during 1990 in a national sample of 784 incident hemodialysis patients insured by Medicare. Medicare claims records were used to identify access failures or revisions among patients with an arteriovenous (AV) fistula (n = 245) and an AV vascular graft (n = 539). A proportional hazards analysis of time to first failure or revision, controlled by stratification for sex, race, and cause of end-stage renal disease, was used to determine the effect of age, access type, and peripheral vascular disease on vascular access survival. Patients with an AV fistula and who were older than 65 years had a risk of access failure that was 24% lower than similar patients with an AV graft (P < 0.02). The relative risk of access failure for an AV fistula, but not an AV graft, varied significantly with age for patients younger than 65 years (P < 0.01). The relative risk of access failure for a patient with an AV fistula, compared with a patient of the same age with an AV graft, was 67% lower at the age of 40 years, 54% lower at the age of 50 years, and 24% lower at the age of 65 years. A history of peripheral vascular disease was associated with a 24% higher risk of AV graft or fistula failure (P = 0.05). Measures to decrease vascular access-related morbidity among hemodialysis patients should include reversing the current trend toward increasing use of AV grafts, particularly in patients younger than 65 years.

We have examined trends in hemodialysis practice from August 2010 to August 2011, a time frame spanning the implementation of the bundled PPS, a major ESA label change by the FDA, and announcements from CMS on the proposed and final rules for the first year of the Quality Incentive Program (QIP) plus the proposed rules for the second and third years of the QIP. Although many hemodialysis practices have remained stable during this 1-year time period, substantial changes have been seen. These include a decline in epoetin dose and hemoglobin levels, an increase in IV iron use and serum ferritin levels, and an increase in PTH levels. The rates of decline in hemoglobin and epoetin dosing levels were greatest in the 2 months after the ESA label change in June 2011. Trends in anemia care in ensuing months, with more follow-up time after the label change, will be of great interest. In view of declining hemoglobin levels, a mechanism for comprehensive monitoring of transfusion rates is warranted to understand this important aspect of care for hemodialysis patients. Regarding clinical outcomes, no trend in all-cause mortality has been evident during this 1-year time period. Additional follow-up is warranted to understand if findings reported here persist over time, and require confirmation with national data as these become available. Trends in clinical care may not necessarily affect patient outcomes, and careful evaluation is required to understand effects on patient outcomes.

Because of adverse survival effects, anemia management and financial incentives to increase doses of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) have been controversial. Prior studies showed more aggressive anemia management in dialysis facilities owned by for-profit chains, but have been criticized for not accounting for practices of individual physicians and facilities.To improve understanding of how dialysis practices and resource utilization are influenced by physicians, facilities, and chains.Mixed models with chain fixed effects and facility and physician random effects.Medicare hemodialysis patients in 2004.A total of 234,158 patients, 3995 facilities, 4838 physicians, and 7 chain classifications were included.Spending per session for dialysis-related services billed separately from the dialysis treatment and for ESAs. Achievement of hematocrit (HCT) and urea reduction ratio (URR) targets.Of the 4 largest for-profit chains, 3 had higher resource use than independents, with differences up to $17.92 higher ESA/session. Utilization was positively associated with achieving target HCT. Despite incurring lower costs, patients treated by a large nonprofit chain were as likely as patients of independents to achieve the HCT target. The largest chains were more likely than independents to achieve the URR target. Substantial variation occurred across physicians and facilities, and adjustment for chain only modestly decreased this variation.Chains' methods of influencing practices were not directly observed.Chains appear to have the ability to implement protocols that shift practices, but not the ability to substantially reduce local variation. Assertions that chain effects found by earlier studies were spurious are not supported.

Background: Racial disparities in health care are widespread in the United States. Identifying contributing factors may improve care for underserved minorities. To the extent that differential utilization of services, based on need or biological effect, contributes to outcome disparities, prospective payment systems may require inclusion of race to minimize these adverse effects. This research determines whether costs associated with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) care varied by race and whether this variance affected payments to dialysis facilities. Study Design: We compared the classification of race across Medicare databases and investigated differences in cost of care for long-term dialysis patients by race. Setting & Participants: Medicare ESRD database including 890,776 patient-years in 2004-2006. Predictors: Patient race and ethnicity. Outcomes: Costs associated with ESRD care and estimated payments to dialysis facilities under a prospective payment system. Results: There were inconsistencies in race and ethnicity classification; however, there was significant agreement for classification of black and nonblack race across databases. In predictive models evaluating the cost of outpatient dialysis care for Medicare patients, race is a significant predictor of cost, particularly for cost of separately billed injectable medications used in dialysis. Overall, black patients had 9% higher costs than nonblack patients. In a model that did not adjust for race, other patient characteristics accounted for only 31% of this difference. Limitations: Lack of information about biological causes of the link between race and cost. Conclusions: There is a significant racial difference in the cost of providing dialysis care that is not accounted for by other factors that may be used to adjust payments. This difference has the potential to affect the delivery of care to certain populations. Of note, inclusion of race into a prospective payment system will require better understanding of biological differences in bone and anemia outcomes, as well as effects of inclusion on self-reported race. Am J Kidney Dis 56:928-936. © 2010 by the National Kidney Foundation, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Background Recent publications suggest that increased mortality is associated with high hematocrit targets in erythropoietin-stimulating agent–treated patients with chronic kidney disease. We aim to further inform the debate about optimal hematocrit targets, advancing the hypothesis that the current hematocrit target may not optimize the survival of patients with end-stage renal disease. Study Design Cross-sectional observational study. Setting & Participants Medicare dialysis patients from 2002 to 2004 (n = 393,967). Factors Quarterly average hematocrit and erythropoietin alfa (EPO) dose. Outcomes Mortality hazard ratios from time-dependent Cox proportional hazard models, adjusting for comorbidities. Results N = 2,712,197 patient-facility quarters. During the study, 100,086 deaths were identified. Percentages of patient quarters within each hematocrit category: hematocrit less than 27% (2.0%), 27% to 28.49% (1.7%), 28.5% to 29.9% (2.9%), 30% to 31.49% (5.2%), 31.5% to 32.99% (9.0%), 33% to 34.49% (14.9%), 34.5% to 35.99% (19.2%), 36% to 37.49% (18.0%), 37.5% to 38.99% (12.0%), 39% to 40.49% (6.4%), 40.5% to 41.99% (3.0%), and 42% or greater (3.1%). Mortality hazard ratios from the fully adjusted model: hematocrit less than 27% (3.11), 27% to 28.49% (2.60), 28.5% to 29.9% (2.14), 30% to 31.49% (1.80), 31.5% to 32.99% (1.44), 33% to 34.49% (1.17), 34.5% to 35.99% (reference), 36% to 37.49% (0.98), 37.5% to 38.99% (1.01), 39% to 40.49% (1.13), 40.5% to 41.99% (1.32), and 42% or greater (1.57). Limitations First, potential confounding by indication related to associations between underlying illness and mortality, anemia, and EPO responsiveness. Second, Medicare claims data reflect a range of conditions and degrees of severity not easily translated into the clinical context. Third, for Medicare claims, EPO reporting is not required if EPO is not billed. Greater than 95% of "missing hematocrit" quarters are "EPO = 0" patient quarters. Interpretation of results for the missing hematocrit and EPO=0 use categories is complicated by data source limitations. Conclusions We show an association between mortality and low hematocrit in dialysis patients, in part reflecting the presence of comorbidities. We also show an association between increased mortality and high hematocrit. Additional interventional trials should be undertaken to better define the optimal target for anemia management in patients with end-stage renal disease, with careful prospective identification of underlying comorbidities and clinical factors contributing to high erythropoietin-stimulating agent requirement.

In April 2005, Medicare began adjusting payments to dialysis providers for composite-rate services for a limited set of patient characteristics, including age, body surface area, and low body mass index. We present analyses intended to help the end-stage renal disease community understand the empirical reasons behind the new composite-rate basic case-mix adjustment. The U-shaped relationship between age and composite-rate cost that is reflected in the basic case-mix adjustment has generated significant discussion within the end-stage renal disease community. Whereas greater costs among older patients are consistent with conventional wisdom, greater costs among younger patients are caused in part by more skipped sessions and a greater incidence of certain costly comorbidities. Longer treatment times for patients with a greater body surface area combined with the largely fixed cost structure of dialysis facilities explains much of the greater cost for larger patients. The basic case-mix adjustment reflects an initial and partial adjustment for the cost of providing composite-rate services.

There is an ongoing discussion in the renal community about how to monitor the treatment of hemodialysis patients in the United States. Comparison of the US patient experience to that of other countries with populations of similar heath status is one way to assess treatment. Another technique involves examining the level of dialysis therapy US patients receive. This paper reviews recent studies which found that the United States has higher mortality than both Japan and Europe and provides additional information as to why those comparisons might be underestimating the mortality differences. We also examine the data on the level of dialysis US patients receive, both as a prescription and as delivered care. We conclude that US patients receive less hemodialysis therapy than their European and Japanese counterparts, and that in general US patients are not receiving the level of dialysis they were prescribed. These factors are correlated with an increased mortality among US hemodialysis patients.

Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis: Comparison of patient mortality with adjustment for comorbid conditions. A historical prospective national sample of 1,725 diabetic and 2,411 non-diabetic Medicare end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients incident from 1986 to 1987 was analyzed for the mortality of patients selected to receive continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) or hemodialysis (HD) with adjustment for patient characteristics, including the presence of comorbid conditions at onset of ESRD. Cox proportional hazards analyses were used to compare the mortality of CAPD and HD patients. Patients were followed from 30 days following onset of ESRD until two to four years post-onset. No statistically significant difference in relative mortality risk (RR) was found among non-diabetic patients selected for CAPD compared to HD (RR = 0.84 for CAPD versus HD, P = 0.25), while evidence of higher adjusted mortality for CAPD compared to HD was found among diabetic patients (RR = 1.26, P = 0.03). Mortality analyses adjusted for pre-treatment risk factors suggest that CAPD and HD provide incident non-diabetic ESRD patients with similar expected survival outcomes. Evidence that increased mortality was associated with CAPD among diabetic patients, particularly among elderly patients, suggests the need for further controlled studies of mortality among CAPD patients with diabetes.

Previous comparisons of the survival of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients in the US with Europe and Japan indicated worse survival outcomes for the US, with adjustment for differences in age and diabetes [1]. A similar set of survival comparisons between Japan and the US was presented at a recent conference in New York [2] (April 26, 1993) for a newer cohort of incident patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) and hemodialysis (HD). This report summarizes the results of those across-country comparisons, with added consideration given to the expected survival of dialysis patients compared to the expected survival of the general population in both societies.

Risk of peritonitis and technique failure by CAPD connection technique: A national study. Peritonitis has been a leading complication of long-term therapy with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). This study was designed to evaluate the risk of peritonitis and technique failure according to the initial CAPD connection technique. Patients from all U.S. facilities starting CAPD therapy at home between January 1 and June 30, 1989 were followed for up to 21 months on the initial CAPD connection technique to change in technique or dialytic modality, to transplantation, death or loss to follow-up. Patients were grouped into standard connection techniques (SCT) (N = 1,133), Y-set (N = 1,067), standard UV set (N = 916) and O-set (N = 167). The time to first peritonitis episode was analyzed actuarially and by using the Cox proportional hazards model which adjusted for age, sex, race, cause of ESRD, CAPD program size and ESRD therapy prior to CAPD. Peritonitis occurred on average at 9.0 month intervals with SCT, 15.0 months with Y-set, 13.4 with standard UV and 9.4 with O-set. The relative risk (RR by Cox analysis) of first peritonitis compared to SCT was 0.60 (40% lower) for the Y-set (P < 0.01), 0.75 for standard UV (P < 0.01), and similar to SCT (RR = 0.96) for the O-set (NS), all else being equal. Analysis time to second (N = 1,271) peritonitis episode gave similar results as did analysis of time to CAPD technique failure. Significantly higher RR of peritonitis and technique failure was observed for younger and black patients. These findings suggest the utilization of connection techniques with superior results.

Objective. —Complications from vascular access account for 15% of hospital admissions among US hemodialysis patients. Complications are less frequent with arteriovenous fistulas than with synthetic grafts. We assessed clinical and nonclinical predictors of whether patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) starting hemodialysis receive a fistula or graft. We also investigated changes in practice between 1986-1987 and 1990. Design. —Cross-sectional study. Setting. —United States hemodialysis population. Patients. —Random, national samples of ESRD patients who started hemodialysis in 1986-1987 (n=2741) or 1990 (n=1409) from United States Renal Data System Special Studies. Main Outcome Measure. —Type of permanent vascular access (arteriovenous fistula vs synthetic graft), analyzed using multivariate logistic regression. Results. —Clinical and demographic factors as well as socioeconomic status, region of residence, and year starting hemodialysis predicted the type of vascular access. Overall, 56% of patients had grafts 30 days after starting dialysis, but graft use increased from 51% in 1986-1987 to 65% in 1990 (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.67for 1990 vs 1986-1987; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.43-1.95; P P P Concclusions. —This national study documents large variations in the relative use of fistulas and grafts and a trend away from fistulas. The prevalence of comorbid conditions fails to explain these findings. Presentation and referral of patients early in the process of their ESRD, teaching surgeons to place fistulas, and training dialysis nurses to access fistulas may increase their use.