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The goal is to test the validity of the "Will to exist-live and survive (WTELS) as a master motivator that activates executive functions. A sample of 262 adults administered different measures that included WTELS and executive functions. We conducted hierarchical regressions with working memory deficits (WMD) and inhibition deficits (ID) as dependent variables. We entered in the last steps resilience and WTELS as independent variables. We conducted path analysis with WTELS as independent variables and WMD and ID as outcome variables and resilience and social support as mediating variables. WTELS accounted for the high effect size for lower working memory deficits and medium effect size for lower inhibition deficits. In path analysis, the effects of WTELS on decreased WMD were direct, while its effects on the ID were indirect. PROCESS analysis indicated that WTELS was directly associated with lower depression, anxiety, PTSD, and COVID-19 traumatic stress, and its indirect effects were mediated by lower executive function deficits (Kira et al., Psych 12:992-1024 2021c, Kira et al., in press). The path model discussed was generally superior to the alternative models and was strictly invariant across genders (male/ female). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

COVID-19 is a new type of trauma that has never been conceptually or empirically analyzed in our discipline. This study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 as traumatic stress on mental health after controlling for individuals' previous stressors and traumas. We utilized a sample of (N = 1374) adults from seven Arab countries. We used an anonymous online questionnaire that included measures for COVID-19 traumatic stress, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, and cumulative stressors and traumas. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression, with posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety as dependent variables. In the first step, in each analysis, we entered the country, gender, age, religion, education, and income as independent variables (Kira, Traumatology 7(2):73–86, 2001; Kira, Torture, 14:38–44, 2004; Kira, Traumatology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000305). In the second step, we entered cumulative stressors and traumas as an independent variable. In the third step, we entered either COVID-19 traumatic stressors or one of its subtypes (fears of infection, economic, and lockdown) as an independent variable. Finally, we conducted structural equation modeling with PTSD, depression, and anxiety as predictors of the latent variable mental health and COVID-19 as the independent variable. Results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stressors, and each of its three subtypes, were unique predictors of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Thus, COVID-19 is a new type of traumatic stress that has serious mental health effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need to accurately assess the specific impacts of the various traumatic stressors caused by COVID-19 on mental health. The goal was to evaluate the impact of different types of COVID-19 stressors (infection fears, lockdown, and economic stressors) on mental health and cognitive functioning. We used a sample of 262 Turkish adults. We administered an online questionnaire that included measures of COVID-19 traumatic stressors, PTSD, depression, anxiety, executive function deficits, and cumulative stressors and traumas (CST). The analyses included correlations, hierarchical regression, path analysis, and PROCESS mediation analysis. All COVID-19 traumatic stressors types and their cumulative load predicted PTSD, depression, anxiety, and executive function deficits after controlling for previous cumulative stressors and traumas and COVID-19 infection. COVID-19 lockdown's stressors were the strongest predictors, compared to COVID-19 fears and economic stressors. Path analysis and PROCESS mediation results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stressors had direct effects on working memory deficits, direct and indirect effects on PTSD, depression, and anxiety, and indirect effects on inhibition deficits. Anxiety, depression, and inhibition deficits mediated its indirect effects on PTSD. The results have conceptual and clinical implications. COVID-19 continuous posttraumatic stress syndrome that includes comorbid PTSD, depression, anxiety, and executive function deficits is different and does not fit within the current trauma frameworks. There is a need for a paradigm shift in current stress and trauma frameworks to account for the COVID-19 continuous global stressors and for clinical innovations in intervention to help its victims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal was to explore the impact of COVID-19 on stress and coping. We collected data two times from seven Arab countries with 10 months in between. We used measures for COVID-19 stressors, social support, resilience, wills to exist, live and survive (WTELS), spirituality, PTSD, depression, anxiety, suicidality and health. We conducted t-test between times 1 and 2. Results showed that COVID-19 perceived stress as well as resilience, social support, and WTELS decreased. Spirituality significantly increased. The high PTSD was stable with increased comorbidity of anxiety, depression and suicidality and decreased health. The clinical implications of the results were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of discrimination on the Egyptian Christians minority' mental health has never been evaluated. The current study utilised Egyptian data that included 247 Christian. The data included measures for discrimination, identity salience, interfaith spirituality, religiosity, "Will to Exist, Live and Survive" (WTELS), reappraisal, self-esteem, posttraumatic growth, collective existential annihilation anxiety (Col-EAA), psychopathology, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We conducted a T-test, stepwise regressions, and path analysis. Discrimination predicted Col-EAA and PTSD, while WTELS and spirituality were protective against Col-EAA. Discrimination had direct effects on higher Col-EAA, and indirect effects on higher PTSD, internalising and thought disorders, and negative effects on self-esteem. Col-EAA had negative effects on reappraisal, self-esteem, and positive effects on PTSD, externalising, internalising, and thought disorders. Identity salience had positive effects on reappraisal and indirect effects on self-esteem. It had indirect effects on lower externalising, internalising, and thought disorders. Discrimination negatively impacts Egyptian Christian mental health. However, their strong identity, WTELS, and interfaith spirituality are protective factors. We discussed the implications of these results from mental health and social justice perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to examine the validity of the Traumatology perspective of the dynamics underlying the adverse mental health effects of gender discrimination (GD) on females' across two different cultural samples. The study was conducted in two samples from Poland (N=277), and Egypt (N=319). To measure GD, we utilized measures of gender discrimination (GD) by parents (GD-P), GD by society (GD-S), internalized gender discrimination (IGD), and GD resistance (GDR). To measure mental health, we utilized measures of internalizing, externalizing, and thought disorders (psychoticism). Further, we used tests for self-esteem, authoritarianism. To control for the effects of other stressors and traumas we used a measure for cumulative stressors and traumas. Path analysis indicated that GD-P in both samples was associated with internalized gender discrimination, internalizing, externalizing, psychoticism and authoritarianism. GD-S predicted lower self-esteem, higher psychoticism, externalizing and internalizing behavior. The model accounted for 40–50% of the variance in internalizing and was invariant on the configural and metric levels. We discussed the implications of the results to intervention and prevention of GD and for future directions in gender research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development-based trauma framework (DBTF) identified collective identity stressors and traumas (CISTs) and other trauma types, such as personal identity traumas (PITs), physical identity or survival trauma (PISTs), preidentity such as attachment traumas, and postidentity or secondary trauma (IST). We utilized pooled data from 9 samples from different minorities, refugees, and other victims of CIST (N = 2471) that used measures of cumulative trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs), and existential anxieties (EAAs). PROCESS macro (Models 4, 6, and 7) was used to analyze CIST direct, mediated, and moderated effects, and the serial trajectories of its mediators. We found significant direct effects of CIST on PTSD, CTD, and EAA, in addition to mediated indirect effects via PIST and PIT. Secondary and attachment traumas moderated its mediated effects. The study validated the integrated conceptual model of CIST. The implications of the results for identity-focused intervention and for advocating for social justice were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the relatively ignored variables in most refugees' trauma studies is the role of the damaged identities. We extended the model of identity as a dynamic non-linear system in the context of identity traumas and tested it in Syrian refugees. We empirically explored the effects of identity salience and cumulative stressors and traumas (CST), as mediated by appraisal and emotional regulation, on posttraumatic growth (PTG) and mental health of Syrian internally displaced (IDP) and refugees. We utilized data previously collected from 502 Syrian IDPS (195) and refugees in the Nederland (111) and Egypt (196). The data included measures of PTG, CST, PTSD, cumulative trauma disorders (CTD), emotion regulation (reappraisal and suppression) and identity salience. CST measure contains subscales for negative and positive tertiary appraisal. The analysis included descriptives, correlations, curve-estimation regression, path analysis, and multigroup structural invariance. Results indicated that increased identity salience was significantly related to higher reappraisal, higher PTG and a higher positive appraisal and significant effects on a lower negative appraisal. It had a significant impact on a lower CTD and PTSD. Increased CST was associated with higher PTSD, CTD, and especially CTD-suicidality, and CTD-psychosis/dissociation. The model was strictly invariant across genders. We discussed a paradigm shift to identity-focused assessment and interventions for refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study utilized the development-based trauma framework on identity traumas to study the cumulative effects of trauma on the identities of Syrian refugees. Participants included 196 Syrian refugees residing in Cairo, Egypt (Mean age = 35.99,SD = 11.05). The rate of post-traumatic stress disorder was 33.5%, and the rate of depression was around 30%; the level of comorbidity was high with a high rate of suicidal plans or attempts (13.7%). Analyses indicated that existential annihilation anxieties, moderated by identity salience, mediated the effects of cumulative trauma on mental health. The results confirmed the utility and validity of the identity trauma model and provided evidence of the dire mental health needs of Syrian refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Compelling evidence of gender differences in authoritarianism, self-esteem, and mental disorders can be found in the psychology literature. However, researchers have not yet identified their etiologies. The traumatology perspective proposes that gender discrimination (GD) contributes to such differences. GD promotes internalized male superiority and enhanced self-esteem that increase authoritarianism and impact men's behavior. GD promotes internalized gender inferiority in women and decreased self-esteem, predicting internalizing disorders. In 2 samples (Sample 1, N = 319 women; Sample 2, N = 204 men), using path analysis, we tested this perspective. In the men's sample, externalizing accounted for about .75 of the variance. GD predicted internalized male superiority, increased externalizing, addiction, psychoticism, authoritarianism, and selfesteem, and decreased internalizing. In the women's sample, GD predicted increased internalized female inferiority, internalizing, and lowered self-esteem. Internalizing accounted for .415 of the variance. The results identified some etiologies and dynamics that contribute to gender differences. We then discussed the implications of these findings for advocating for gender equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on forgiveness on the interpersonal level has found evidence of its positive health and mental health effects. However, there is no research on the health and mental health benefits of forgiveness in political conflicts. The removal of the dictator and the war in Iraq has provided researchers with opportunities to answer some questions about the effects of forgiveness in political conflicts. This study used a modified measure of forgiveness and measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cumulative trauma disorder (complex PTSD), health, and religiosity with a sample of 501 Iraqi refugees in Wayne County, Michigan. Results indicated that forgiveness of the collaborators has some positive mental health benefits and is associated with religiosity, whereas not forgiving them has serious health and mental health consequences. However, counter to predictions, un-forgiveness of the dictator was found to be associated with positive health and mental health. Health mediated the effects of un-forgiveness on PTSD. The significance of these results to working with victims of political violence and reconciliation is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this study was to explore the effects of watching or listening to news about the war in Iraq on the physical and mental health in a sample of 501 Iraqi refugees. We used measures of media exposure, families and friends killed in the war, cumulative trauma, torture, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cumulative trauma disorders, and health. Data indicates media exposure to war news was highly predictive of PTSD and poor health after controlling for the effects of previous cumulative traumas and demographics. The effect of media exposure was comparable in its physical and mental health effects to the war-related death or injury of family members and friends, and stronger than other previous traumas. We used mass communication, globalization, secondary trauma, identity trauma, taxonomy of trauma, and cognitive and value processing theories to interpret the results. Results suggest that war media exposure is a Type III collective identity secondary trauma for Iraqis, which is the most damaging kind. It is ongoing and also has the potential of retraumatization. Previous cumulative traumas and poverty mediated the effects of media exposure. Media has a powerful impact because it transmits potentially significant information (relevant and important to the individual) quickly and by using striking and clear images of the war that can traumatize or retraumatize the concerned individual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the potential root causes of elevated levels of poor health and mental health in Iraqi refugees. One of the mechanisms that has been suggested to explain the direct effects of trauma on health and mental health is the effects of stress generated by the traumatic events on the human immune system and on brain structures.

The article discusses the evolving models of integration and presents the Calgary model and the ACCESS Community Health and Research Center model which is evidence-based and ecologically valid. Health and behavior are determined by the interaction of human genetics, culture and environment. A significant body of evidence refers to the validity of the interaction paradigm.

The goal of this study was to examine whether the retributive justice enacted by the elimination of the oppressive regime in Iraq has positive mental health effects on Iraqi refugees. The study was conducted on a sample of 501 Iraqi refugees. Data was collected with measures for retributive justice, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cumulative trauma disorder (CTD), cumulative trauma, futuristic orientation, sociocultural adjustment, post-traumatic growth, social support, and other measures. Multiple regression and path analyses found that the variable regaining self-control and executive functions was the most predictive of the positive mental health gains. However, improvements in PTSD symptoms were not observed, possibly because of previous traumas or the ongoing trauma of discrimination and the war in Iraq. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]