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In this study we aim to assess the WRF-Chem model capacity to reproduce dust transport over the eastern Mediterranean. For this reason, we compare the model aerosol optical depth (AOD) outputs to observations, focusing on three key regions: North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the eastern Mediterranean. Three sets of four simulations have been performed for the six-month period of spring and summer 2011. Each simulation set uses a different dust emission parametrisation and for each parametrisation, the dust emissions are multiplied with various coefficients in order to tune the model performance. Our assessment approach is performed across different spatial and temporal scales using AOD observations from satellites and ground-based stations, as well as from airborne measurements of aerosol extinction coefficients over the Sahara. Assessment over the entire domain and simulation period shows that the model presents temporal and spatial variability similar to observed AODs, regardless of the applied dust emission parametrisation. On the other hand, when focusing on specific regions, the model skill varies significantly. Tuning the model performance by applying a coefficient to dust emissions may reduce the model AOD bias over a region, but may increase it in other regions. In particular, the model was shown to realistically reproduce the major dust transport events over the eastern Mediterranean, but failed to capture the regional background AOD. Further comparison of the model simulations to airborne measurements of vertical profiles of extinction coefficients over North Africa suggests that the model realistically reproduces the total atmospheric column AOD. Finally, we discuss the model results in two sensitivity tests, where we included finer dust mode (less than 1 μm) and changed accordingly the dust bins mass fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Hydrological cycle in the Mediterranean eXperiment ( HyMeX) was held in autumn 2012 during which part of the observational effort was established on Menorca Island to characterize the upwind marine low-level flow. The ground-based Water-vapour Raman Lidar ( WALI), the airborne water-vapour lidar LEANDRE 2 and boundary-layer pressurized balloons were implemented during the first Special Observing Period and contributed to characterize water vapour variability in the vicinity of the Balearic Islands, together with the existing network of Global Positioning System receivers. Furthermore, analyses from regional and global numerical weather prediction ( NWP) models ( AROME-WMED, the ECMWF/ IFS NWP system and the Weather Research and Forecasting ( WRF) model) were also available over large domains encompassing part of or the entire western Mediterranean basin. We assess the consistency of water vapour mixing ratio ( WVMR) profiles and integrated water vapour contents ( IWVC) derived from the different datasets by comparing them to a common reference, the ground-based lidar WALI. We use consistency indicators such as root-mean-square errors, biases and correlations. Comparison between WVMR profiles from ground-based and airborne lidars (ground-based lidar and boundary-layer pressurized balloons) leads to a root-mean-square error lower than 1.6 g kg−1 (1.3 g kg−1) when the closest possible air masses are sampled. We observed a good agreement between the vertical WVMR profiles derived from WALI and the numerical models with correlations higher than 0.7 and root-mean-square errors lower than 2 g kg−1. Regarding IWVCs, the models exhibit biases less than 2 kg m−2, root-mean-square errors lower than 2.3 g kg−1 and correlations higher than 0.86 when compared to WALI. Finally, AROME-WMED 48 h forecasts were compared with WALI data composited over eleven 48 h periods. The quality of the forecast does not visibly degrade within the 48 h period from the initial analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Intensive Observing Period 15b of the first Special Observation Period of the Hydrological Cycle in the Mediterranean Experiment ( HyMeX), a variety of mesoscale convective systems ( MCSs) impacted the Cevennes-Vivarais ( CV) target area leading to over 100 mm of 24 h accumulated rainfall on 20 and 21 October 2012. The CV area was first impacted by a V-shaped MCS developing over the Cevennes mountains, then by a MCS initiated on the eastern foothills of the Pyrenees and finally by three MCSs initiating over the sea. The MCSs initiated and propagated along a well-defined storm track ahead of an approaching upper-level trough, as observed with the 15 min resolution Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager. The storm track was characterized by strong southeasterly winds over the Mediterranean and high integrated water vapour content ( IWVC), as derived from observations from the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS) and the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS). The ground-based Water-vapour Raman Lidar, located in the Balearic Islands, captured the increasing moistening of the free troposphere, up to 5 km, associated with the eastward propagation of the surface low from Gibraltar to a location west of the Balearic Islands. MODIS and AIRS observations, together with Weather Research and Forecasting ( WRF) model simulations, revealed the tropical origin of the high moisture content characterizing the storm track, with IWVC values on the order of 35 kg m−2, and enhanced moisture being observed below 500 hPa. The WRF simulations also showed that the MCS initiation offshore was very likely caused by low-level wind convergence and conditionally unstable air along the storm track, between North Africa and southern France. Low-level convergence resulted from the interaction between a strong southwesterly swirling flow around the low-pressure centre and an easterly low-level jet present along the southern France coastline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two deep cyclones occurred in the Mediterranean between 25 and 31 October 2012, during the first Special Observation Period (SOP1) of the Hydrological cycle in the Mediterranean Experiment (HyMeX). Both cyclones were associated with extreme rainfall covering a large part of the western Mediterranean Sea, where 24 h accumulated precipitation measurements exceeded 150 mm. We combine complementary observations from airborne radar and lidar systems, ZEUS lightning detection network and meteorological surface stations along with satellite diagnostics on deep convection, for a detailed microphysics and (thermo-)dynamical analysis of the two extreme rainfall cases. In addition, we use operational analysis data from the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) for analysing the synoptic conditions and diagnosing strongly ascending air masses in the vicinity of the cyclones, so-called warm conveyor belts (WCBs). The analysis revealed the different physical characteristics of the two cyclones responsible for the extreme rainfalls. Both cyclones were associated with a WCB and a comma cloud, but deep convection, intense lightning and very cold cloud tops occurred only for the first case while the second cyclone was mostly associated with stratiform rainfall, a strong WCB, and only a few embedded cells of deep convection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction to the special issue on "Advances in understanding and forecasting of heavy precipitation in the Mediterranean through the Hydrological Cycle in Mediterranean Experiment (HyMeX) field campaign" is presented.

Water vapor measurements with the multiwavelength Raman lidar Backscatter Extinction Lidar-Ratio Temperature Humidity Profiling Apparatus (BERTHA) were performed during the Convective and Orographically-induced Precipitation Study (COPS) in the Black Forest, Germany, from June to August 2007. For quality assurance, profiles of the water vapor mixing ratio measured with BERTHA are compared to simultaneous measurements of a radiosonde and an airborne differential absorption lidar (DIAL) on 31 July 2007. The differences from the radiosonde observations are found to be on average 1.5%% and 2.5%% in the residual layer and in the free troposphere, respectively. During the two overflights at 1937 and 2018 UTC, the differences from the DIAL results are −2.2%% and −3.7%% in the residual layer and 2.1%% and −2.6%% in the free troposphere. After this performance check, short-range forecasts from the German Meteorological Service's (Deutscher Wetterdienst, DWD) version of the Consortium for Small-Scale Modeling (COSMO-DE) model are compared to the BERTHA measurements for two case studies. Generally, it is found that water vapor mixing ratios from short-range forecasts are on average 7.9%% drier than the values measured in the residual layer. In the free troposphere, modeled values are 9.7%% drier than the measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution and finescale structure of a dryline that initiated a line of thunderstorms is presented. Both the along-line variability and mean vertical structure were examined using data collected by an airborne Doppler radar and a water vapor differential absorption lidar (DIAL). The initiation of convection appeared to result from the diurnally induced easterly flow in the maritime air east of the dryline that typically develops late in the day. This flow increased the low-level convergence and allowed rising parcels of air to reach the level of free convection. The along-line variability was largely attributed to numerous misocyclones distorting the thin line of radar reflectivity by advecting dry (moist) air across the dryline south (north) of the misocyclone. The misocyclones also influenced the location of the updrafts, with most of the peak values positioned north of the circulations. As a result, these updrafts were fortuitously positioned in regions of high mixing ratio where the first convective cells initiated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]