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The aim of this study was to characterize and evaluate the antioxidant activity of Chlorella peptide fractions coated with chitosan-modified nanoliposomes. Additionally, the release process of these peptide fractions under simulated gastric and intestinal conditions was evaluated. Protein hydrolysates were obtained from Chlorella through enzymatic hydrolysis, resulting in increased concentrations of antioxidant and hydrophobic amino acids. Peptide fractions were selected and separated based on their molecular weights, and it was observed that the fractions with lower molecular weights (less than 10 kDa, PF-10) contained higher amounts of hydrophobic and antioxidant amino acids. Among the fractions, PF-10 exhibited the highest radical inhibition activity for DPPH and ABTS, as well as enhanced reducing power and chelating activity towards copper ions. PF-10 and PF-30 (peptide fractions with a molecular weight less than 30 kDa) also demonstrated higher inhibition of nitric oxide radicals and total antioxidant activity (TAA) compared to the hydrolyzed form and other fractions. The analysis of physicochemical properties identified PF-10 as the most favorable treatment due to its size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency (EE). Coating the nanoliposomes with chitosan resulted in an increase in particle size and PDI but significantly improved the preservation of EE during storage. Chitosan coating also enhanced the activity of DPPH and OH radical scavenging. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the localization of peptides within the polar regions and the bilayer membrane of nanoliposomes, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed agglomerated and spherical structures. Overall, our findings highlight the effectiveness of nanoliposomes as carriers for delivering peptide fractions with high antioxidant activity. The formulation of chitosan-coated nanoliposomes as carriers for Chlorella-peptide fractions represents an innovative advancement, providing opportunities for the creation of functional and stable formulations. These formulations hold the potential to provide benefits regarding human health and environmental considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological advancement in encapsulating vegetable oil enriched with PUFA has become a new trend to improve stability, preservation, and food application. For microencapsulation of flaxseed oil, spray and freeze drying have been extensively used; however, in this study, ultrasonication along with microwave drying had a significant impact on the encapsulation efficiency (%) and dissolution time (min) of the powder. Analysis of experimental data revealed the optimized condition of microencapsulated flaxseed oil powder at 4.5 g maltodextrin/g of whey protein concentrate,.208 mL oil/g of wall material, and 14 min ultrasonication time. In addition, 6 min of microwave drying at 60 W provided 85.4% encapsulation efficiency, 1.98 meq/kg of oil peroxide value, 4.92 color difference, and 7.08 min dissolution time for the encapsulated powder. Storage studies for 21 days revealed that the peroxide value of raw oil increased by 13 times, whereas microencapsulated powder had only a twofold increase which demonstrated its higher stability when compared with bulk flaxseed oil. Practical applications: Flaxseed oil is rich in omega‐3 fatty acids, however has poor stability. Encapsulation of flaxseed oil will enhance stability, longer shelf life, and health benefits. Encapsulated oil can be used in dairy and bakery products to increase omega‐3 fatty acids intake and enhance the nutritional values of final products. The current work will recommend the food industries to prepare omega‐3 fatty acids‐rich foods by incorporating encapsulated flaxseed oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complex coacervation is an encapsulation technique used to preserve the bio functionality of essential oils as well as provide controlled release. In this present work, encapsulation of Citrus Hystrix essential oil (CHEO) was formed by a complex coacervation technique with Gelatin-B (Gel B) and Chitosan (Chi) as the capping materials. The suitable encapsulation formulation was investigated as a function of pH and wall ratio using Zeta Potential analysis. Turbidity measurement and coacervate yield were carried out to confirm the suitable condition. Total Phenolic Content (TPC) was used to obtain the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of the process. Results show that the suitable condition for coacervate formation between Gel B and Chi ratio of 5:1 was at pH 5.8, which produced a high encapsulation efficiency of 94.81% ± 2.60. FTIR analysis validates the formation of coacervate as well as the encapsulated CHEO. The encapsulates obtained were spherical and dominated by 194.557 um particles. The CHEO was successfully encapsulated by a complex coacervation method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a long time, olive oil has been considered for formulation of biopharmaceuticals and received a prestigious place in cuisine for its unique organoleptic and nutritional properties. Nevertheless, oxidation of fatty acids in olive oil provides short shelf-life and undesirable organoleptic properties. Thus, microencapsulation of olive oil is a considerable promising approach to maintain its quality and biological activities. The objective of this investigation was to prepare extra virgin olive oil microcapsule by sequential technologies, such as water emulsification of olive oil with wall material (matrix) and freeze drying of emulsion. The effect of wall material composition was examined to prepare microcapsule of extra virgin olive oil. Different ratios of wall materials such as maltodextrin (MD), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and gum arabic (GA) were used. Furthermore, effects of emulsification technologies, such as homogenisation with rotor–stator homogeniser (RSH) and cross-flow membrane emulsification (CFME) were investigated. The stability of emulsion was higher when emulsion was prepared by RSH; however, the droplet mean diameter (D32) was lower in case of RSH compared to CFME. The highest encapsulation efficiency (EE) was found as 68.96 ± 2.6% when CFME was adopted and composition of wall materials was 15 g MD, 15 g GA, and 5 g CMC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Phenolic compounds found in plants have an unstable structure and can easily exhibit degradation reactions in external environmental factors. It is important to protect these active ingredients from environmental conditions. The encapsulation process emerges as an effective solution to this situation. In this study, microencapsulation studies of quinoa plant extract, which is known to have useful active ingredients, were carried out. Microcapsules loaded with quinoa extract (QE) were prepared by the complex coacervation method using two natural polymers, gelatin, and gum Arabic, as wall material. A response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the conditions for encapsulation efficiency. The encapsulation efficiency of the microencapsulated quinoa extract (MQE) was investigated in terms of three variables: stirring speed, core material amount, and surfactant concentration. The highest efficiency obtained as a result of experiments was found at 70.895%. Morphological analysis images of the microcapsules confirmed the capsule structure. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed the interaction between gelatin and gum Arabic and similarities in the quinoa extract and microcapsule bands showed that the extract was encapsulated. Thermogravimetric analysis results also proved the thermal stability of microcapsules. The microcapsules obtained with the experimental design formulation were observed to have general sizes of ∼4–120µ. Quinoa extract containing phenolic compounds was microencapsulated. The effects of three different variables (mixing speed, core material amount, and surfactant concentration) on encapsulation efficiency were investigated. The highest encapsulation efficiency was obtained at 1500 rpm, 5.00 g core material amount, and 0.5% surfactant concentration, and the yield was achieved at 70.895%. Microcapsules were prepared under optimum conditions in the reaction surface methodology and the obtained microcapsules were characterized morphologically and chemically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fruits are rich in bioactive components that have many health benefits. However, they are unstable due to various environmental factors. Thus, the encapsulation technique appeared to be effective for sensitive bioactive compounds and targeted storage delivery systems. Various methods are used for the encapsulation of bioactive components. Drying is one of the methods used for encapsulating bioactive components in liquid form using suitable coating material discussed in the review. Freeze‐drying, spray drying, and spray cooling are the various encapsulation techniques used to convert fruit juices into powder. Spray drying is one of the commercially used encapsulation techniques for fruit juices in the food industry due to its low‐cost process. Freeze‐drying is the advantageous drying method used for encapsulating heat‐sensitive bioactive compounds such as carotenoids, anthocyanins, phenolics, and flavonoids present in fruit juices. Fruit powder has more benefits than it can be added to all foods formulated. Practical Applications: This comprehensive review gives on fruit powder encapsulation will be useful in the understanding of techniques, and properties to consider for production. Microencapsulation helps in giving protection to fruit powder against various food processing applications by controlling the encapsulated structuring way, the time needed to release nutrients, and the dose of release. Microencapsulated fruit powder has demanded in the industry due to its application in various food formulations. This review article attempts to comprehensively summarize the different methods of encapsulation techniques, powder properties, and their application in foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, dryings by foam mat, foam mat freeze-drying, spray-drying and freeze-drying were proposed to microencapsulate bioactive compounds extracted from espresso spent coffee. Albumin, maltodextrin and gum arabic were used as wall materials, and the dried product was characterized and compared. The foams produced were dried in a tunnel dryer at different temperatures and air velocities. The drying time ranged from 200 to 450 min, and shorter drying times were obtained for the highest temperatures. For all drying methods, dried products with good physicochemical properties and high levels of phenolic and antioxidant compounds were obtained. The foam mat resulted in samples with higher moisture content and bulk density. On the other hand, freeze-dried samples had greater hygroscopicity and shorter wettability times. Spray-dried samples were lighter (highest value of parameter L*). The encapsulation efficiency values were between 66.46% and 88.01%, with the lowest values obtained for the foam mat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of fish oral vaccines is of great interest to the aquaculture industry due to the possibility of rapid vaccination of a large number of animals at reduced cost. In a previous study, we evaluated the effect of alginate-encapsulated Piscirickettsia salmonis antigens (AEPSA) incorporated in feed, effectively enhancing the immune response in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). In this study, we seek to characterize AEPSA produced by ionic gelation using an aerodynamically assisted jetting (AAJ) system, to optimize microencapsulation efficiency (EE%), to assess microparticle stability against environmental (pH, salinity and temperature) and gastrointestinal conditions, and to evaluate microparticle incorporation in fish feed pellets through micro-CT-scanning. The AAJ system was effective in obtaining small microparticles (d < 20 μm) with a high EE% (97.92%). Environmental conditions (pH, salinity and temperature) generated instability in the microparticles, triggering protein release. 62.42% of the protein content was delivered at the intestinal level after in vitro digestion. Finally, micro-CT-scanning images confirmed microparticle incorporation in fish feed pellets. In conclusion, the AAJ system is effective at encapsulating P. salmonis antigens in alginate with a high EE% and a size small enough to be incorporated in fish feed and produce an oral vaccine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to prepare GeXIVA[1,2] PLGA microspheres by W/O/W re-emulsificationsolvent evaporation technology and to develop sustained-release formulations to meet the clinical treatment needs of chronic neuropathic pain. Through prescription optimization, the uniformity of particle size and the encapsulation efficiency is improved, so as to achieve the quality standard of the microspheres. The mechanism of trehalose improving the stability of GeXIVA[1,2] was studied and verified by molecular simulation. The results showed that when adding trehalose to W1, using the PLGA model of 75:25, PLGA concentration of 30%, PVA concentration of 1.5%, adding 1% NaCl to PVA and adding 1% NaCl to solidification water, the prepared microspheres are smooth, the particle size is about 25 µm, and the encapsulation rate reaches 90%. The results of in vitro release experiments showed that the microspheres could be released steadily for about 30 days. The microsphere samples were characterized and analyzed by molecular simulation and powder X-ray diffractometer, and the protective mechanism of trehalose on GeXIVA[1,2] was discussed. The results showed that the hydrogen bond formed between trehalose and GeXIVA[1,2] acted as a hydration film and played a certain protective role on GeXIVA[1,2]. In addition, high-viscosity trehalose can form a glass state and wrap around GeXIVA[1,2], reducing the free movement of molecules. In the microsphere system, trehalose can also avoid the influence of PLGA material on the secondary structure of GeXIVA[1,2]. In conclusion, this study is expected to provide a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on the optimization of Hydrastis canadensis -based nanocarriers in environmental and microbial applications like antibacterial and dye degradation. Hydrastis canadensis (H. canadensis) is loaded into the nanocarrier using a gelation method. Characterization involves pH analysis, UV-VIS spectrophotometry, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, high-performance liquid chromatography, encapsulation efficiency. Further antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were tested. Dye degradation was evaluated at concentrations of 1 % of high molecular (HM) and 1.5 % of low molecular (LM) chitosan nanoparticles with both 3C and 1000C concentrations of the drug. The obtained results confirm the presence of chitosan nanocarrier alongside the pure drug in 1 % HM and 1.5 % LM chitosan particles with a notable encapsulation efficiency activity in both 3C and 1000C concentrations. Antimicrobial studies were carried out using the agar well diffusion method and revealed a significant zone of inhibition of 20 mm and 25 mm for E. coli and S. aureus , respectively in chitosan nanocarrier-loaded samples compared to pure drug and chitosan nanocarriers samples. The dye degradation studies of four dyes methylene blue, methylene orange, methylene red, and safranin using both pure drugs and chitosan nanocarrier-loaded drugs showed the highest percentage of degradation (76 %) against methylene blue in the chitosan nanocarrier-drug loaded formulation. These findings cumulatively underscore chitosan nanoparticles can be used as an effective carrier for Hydrastis Canadensis , with enhanced antimicrobial and dye degradation capabilities. Varied concentrations and molecular weights highlight the versatility of the ionotropic gelation method in optimizing drug delivery. Enhanced efficacy of the nanocarrier was evident in the observed zone of inhibition in antimicrobial testing. The substantial degradation percentage in methylene blue emphasizes the formulation's applicability in environmental dye removal processes, with potential avenues for improvement explored through interactions between the chitosan nanocarrier and H. canadensis characteristics. Future investigations may focus on scaling up the optimized formulation for large-scale applications and exploring release kinetics and comprehensive toxicity assessments for a holistic understanding of potential environmental and biomedical implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biopolymers, especially polysaccharides (e.g., gum Arabic), are widely applied as drug carriers in drug delivery systems due to their advantages. Curcumin, with high antioxidant ability but limited solubility and bioavailability in the body, can be encapsulated in gum Arabic to improve its solubility and bioavailability. When curcumin is encapsulated in gum Arabic, it is essential to understand how it works in various conditions. As a result, in Simulated Intestinal Fluid and Simulated Gastric Fluid conditions, we investigated the potential of gum Arabic as the drug carrier of curcumin. This study was conducted by varying the gum Arabic concentrations, i.e., 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 40%, to encapsulate 0.1 mg/mL of curcumin. Under both conditions, the greater the gum Arabic concentration, the greater the encapsulation efficiency and antioxidant activity of curcumin, but the worse the gum Arabic loading capacity. To achieve excellent encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, and antioxidant activity, the data advises that 10% is the best feasible gum Arabic concentration. Regarding the antioxidant activity of curcumin, the findings imply that a high concentration of gum Arabic was effective, and the Simulated Intestinal Fluid brought an excellent surrounding compared to the Simulated Gastric Fluid solution. Moreover, the gum Arabic releases curcumin faster in the Simulated Gastric Fluid condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil microcapsule was prepared by spray drying. The effects of the wall-material parameters of wall-to-oil ratio (1:1 to 3:1) and type of wall material (gum arabic (GA), whey protein isolate (WPI), and octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) starch) on the microcapsules were evaluated. The droplet size, size distribution, viscosity, zeta potential, and stability of the emulsions were measured. The spray-dried powder was characterized by its morphology, yield, encapsulation efficiency, and moisture content. The wall material influenced the characteristics of the emulsions and microcapsules. The formulation with a 2:1 wall-to-oil ratio and OSA starch/maltodextrin as the wall material resulted in a small droplet size (0.177 ± 0.002 µm) with high encapsulation efficiency (98.38 ± 0.01%). This formulation had good physical stability over three months under accelerated conditions. Thus, OSA starch/maltodextrin is an appropriate wall material for encapsulating MCT oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodegradable polymer nano‐ and microparticles are of interest as drug carriers due to their capability to modulate drug release. Two different methods, including solvent displacement and spray drying, are used, resulting in the fabrication of Artemisone (ART)‐loaded polymeric nano‐ and microparticles, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and asymmetric flow field flow fractionation (AF4) are employed to evaluate the morphology and size of the particles. The encapsulation and loading efficiency of the drug as well as cumulative release are characterized using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC results confirm that the spray drying method provides higher encapsulation efficiencies of about 97%, whereas, in nanoparticles prepared by solvent displacement, the highest encapsulation efficiency is 71%. Using these production methods, round‐shaped particles with homogeneous size distribution are fabricated. Moreover, the preparation procedure is optimized to obtain particles with the highest encapsulation and drug loading efficiency. Using the solvent displacement method, stable dispersions in water are obtained without adding any surfactant, whereas, for spray‐dried microparticles, tween 80 is needed to redisperse particles. The micro‐ and nanoparticles show different release properties, which are of interest for drug delivery application of hydrophobic drugs like ART. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research background. Due to numerous health-promoting properties, dandelion has been used in traditional medicine as a herbal remedy, but also as a food product. Dandelion health benefits are ascribed to the presence of different bioactive compounds in its tissues, among which polyphenols play a significant role. However, the low stability of polyphenols is a critical parameter for their successful implementation into products. Thus, their encapsulation using appropriate carrier vehicles is highlighted as an effective technique for their stabilization and protection. The aim of this study is to microencapsulate dandelion leaf extract using spray drying and different carrier materials for the first time. Experimental approach. In spray drying, low inlet temperature of 130 °C was employed to preserve sensitive dandelion polyphenols, while guar gum, gum arabic, inulin, maltodextrin, pectin and alginate were used as carriers. The influence of different carriers and their content on physicochemical, morphological and colour properties, polyphenolic content and encapsulation efficiency of polyphenols in dandelion powders was examined. Specific polyphenols were determined using HPLC-PAD analysis. Their release profiles and antioxidant capacity in simulated gastrointestinal conditions were also evaluated. Results and conclusions. Compared to plain dandelion powder, carrier-containing dandelion powders have favourably increased solubility, enhanced flow and cohesive properties, reduced particle size and prolonged release of polyphenols under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Powders were characterized by low moisture content (~2-8 %) and high solubility (~92-97 %). Chicoric acid was the most abundant compound in dandelion powders. Pectin-dandelion powder showed to be the most effective for microencapsulation of polyphenols, especially for chicoric acid entrapment (74.4 %). Alginate-dandelion powder enabled the slowest gradual release of polyphenols. Novelty and scientific contribution. Spray drying at 130 °C and the applied carriers proved to be effective for microencapsulation of dandelion extract, where polyphenolic- rich dandelion powders, due to good physicochemical and encapsulation properties, could serve for the enrichment/production of different functional food products. Also, due to the lack of data on dandelion encapsulation, the obtained results could be of great interest for researchers in the encapsulation field, but also for food industry, especially in the field of instant powders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Propolis, which is a bee glue is potentially a useful food additive since it contains antioxidant and preservative-like properties. However, its application in the food industry remains limited, due to its strong taste and low solubility. Microencapsulation is a technique that can improve its characteristics and the most widely used is spray drying. To obtain a spray-dried product with desired properties, optimization of both the encapsulating materials and equipment operating conditions are crucial. In this review, the use of different wall materials and operational conditions for spray drying of propolis are discussed, in order to guide selection of these parameters to obtain optimal spray dried microcapsules. In addition, comparison with other microencapsulation techniques is also discussed and pertinent industrial applications of spray-dried propolis given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthocyanins are abundant phytochemicals in nature that draw the public interest not only in their health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties. It also showed their function in providing foodstuffs with appealing and distinctive color. In this study, anthocyanins from hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces were microencapsulated by spray drying and freeze drying techniques using a wide variety of carriers including maltodextrin (MD), gum Arabic (GA) and their binary blends with inulin (INU) and konjac glucomannan (KON). The results showed that freeze-dried hibiscus powder using KON as carrier had the highest phenolic, anthocyanin and antioxidant activity, followed by spray-dried and freeze-dried MD/KON samples, which indicated the role of KON in the effective retention of antioxidants during the drying process. In addition, the ferric and cupric ion reduction activity (FRAP and CUPRAC) of the spray-dried samples was significantly higher than those of the freeze-dried powder. However, in terms of encapsulation efficiency (EE) of anthocyanins, KON was shown to be ineffective in entrapping these compounds in microcapsules with the lowest EE of freeze-dried KON and spray-dried MD/KON of 43.6% and 55.4%, respectively. By contrast, MD/GA was the most effective carrier, retaining anthocyanins inside the carrier matrix and limiting their loss to the surface of the microcapsules in both spray-drying and freeze-drying methods (EE of 91.8% and 95.7%, respectively). In addition, the moisture content of spray-dried powder samples was significantly higher than that of lyophilized powders, and the solubility of all samples was above 94.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthocyanins are important phytochemical compounds in nature that are of interest not only for their health benefits such as antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and anti‐carcinogenic properties, but also for their role in imparting attractive and characteristic color to food products. In this study, anthocyanins from hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces were microencapsulated by spray‐drying technique using maltodextrin as the carrier. The experiment was carried out in the full factorial design with two factors, namely inlet temperature (150, 160, and 170°C) and anthocyanin to maltodextrin mass ratio (1:50, 1:60, 1:70, 1:80, 1:90, and 1:100) with the aim of investigating the effect of spray drying conditions on phenolic content, anthocyanin, antioxidant activity, and color of spray‐dried hibiscus powder. The results showed that increasing the carrier ratio significantly reduced the antioxidant content and their activities in the powder. However, the high level of carriers exhibited a protective effect in encapsulating anthocyanin compounds into the maltodextrin matrix, which was demonstrated by high encapsulation efficiency (>85%) observed in the samples prepared at a ratio of 1:100. It should be highlighted that although high temperature (170°C) reduced total anthocyanin concentration, it actually enhanced total phenolic content. In addition, the moisture content of the powder declined with increasing carrier ratio and inlet temperature, and it was found to be in the range of 5.57%–10.19% in the powder. With solubility greater than 93.71%, the total phenolic and total anthocyanin content of spray‐dried hibiscus powder were 31.5–41.9 (mg gallic acid equivalent/g of dry powder) and 6.08–10.47 (mg cyanidin‐3‐glucoside/g of dry powder), respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying was used to produce microencapsulated Wilson's dogwood (Swida wilsoniana) oil. The influences of the emulsifier and wall materials on the encapsulation were studied in order to produce high quality encapsulated S. wilsoniana oil. The emulsions were prepared by using lecithin (L) and Tween 80 (T) with different hydrophilic-lipophilic balance. Results indicated that the stable emulsion was obtained using T and L as the compound emulsifier at a ratio of 4/6 (w/w). By virtue of the compound emulsifier (T/L 4/6), the microencapsulation efficiency (MEE) reached 91%, and the oil loading up to 35% was achieved. We also examined the influence of the wall materials on the microencapsulation of S. wilsoniana oil. All the three wall materials exhibited high MEE (> 85%), and the highest MEE (95.20%) was obtained with sodium caseinate/lactose. All the S. wilsoniana oil encapsulated with the three wall materials exhibited nearly spherical microcapsules without pores or cracks, thus protecting the oil from oxygen.

This work focuses on the universal applicability of microencapsulation on core materials. From this point, nine different fragrance oils were selected as core materials, and the corresponding melamine resin shell microcapsules were prepared by a uniform process. According to characterization results, the microencapsulation shows good universality for most core materials, but their encapsulation efficiency (E%, 17.28%‐88.26%), particle size distribution (D50, 9.65‐33.82 μm) and optical micro‐morphology are significantly different. By analysing the influence of the interfacial tension (F), relative dielectric constant (ε), viscosity (τ), density (ρ) and refractive index (n) of the core materials on encapsulation, it was found that the F determines whether the core material is suitable, and f ≥ 1 is the basic condition for the core material to have the value of microencapsulation. Besides, the ε and n both can be used as auxiliary criteria, τ and ρ also influence the microencapsulation process. Based on these data, a "Dimensionless encapsulation number" x=F0.25·ρn‐nH2O/ε0.25·τ0.5 was tentatively established, and the mathematical relation between it and corresponding E% was constructed, which could be applied as a semi‐empirical formula in practical work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lipid-like pseudo-double-chained catanionic surfactants have emerged as the attractive materials to prepare potential vesicular carriers in drug and gene delivery applications. In particular, the semispontaneous process has been developed to fabricate ethosome-like catanionic vesicles for the transdermal drug delivery. In this work, Arbutin (a water-soluble drug) encapsulation efficiency of ethosome-like catanionic vesicles fabricated from decyltrimethylammonium-tetradecylsulfate (DeTMA-TS, CH3(CH2)9 N(CH3)3-CH3(CH2)13SO4) and decyltrimethylammonium-dodecylsulfate (DeTMA-DS, CH3(CH2)9N(CH3)3-CH3(CH2)11SO4) with various amounts of ethanol and cholesterol in tris buffer solution was experimentally determined. A simple unilamellar vesicle (ULV) model, resulting in the theoretical encapsulation efficiency within ±10% error for most vesicle compositions, was also developed. Such agreement indirectly confirmed the formation of unilamellar vesicles by the preparation method. Stable ethosome-like catanionic vesicles by using catanionic surfactants with the aid of suitable amounts of ethanol and cholesterol, which led to polydispersity index (PDI) values of vesicle size distribution less than 0.3, were successfully prepared and their hydrophilic drug encapsulation efficiencies can be accurately predicted. Furthermore, the linear correlations of the trap volume ratio with both vesicle size and concentration of the extra added CHOL also provide important guidelines for controlling the drug loading of ethosome-like catanionic vesicles. The accomplishments reached for the novel vesicles are useful for developing their transdermal drug delivery applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ionotropic gelation is a low-cost, easy and green microencapsulation technique. However, the encapsulation of highly soluble compounds is challenging because of the wide loss of material into the external water phase by passive diffusion and the consequent low encapsulation efficiency. In this work an important increase of encapsulation efficiency for Thymus vulgaris L. aqueous extract in alginate-based microparticles has been obtained. A formulation with the proper thyme extract/alginate ratio (30:70) was used as reference and then optimized by adding different co-carrier excipients. Microparticles obtained by dropping a solution containing thyme extract and alginate into a chitosan/calcium-chloride/acid acetic solution lead to a high encapsulation efficiency (70.43 ± 5.28 %). After drying, microparticles had a particle size of 1096 ± 72 μm, 20.087 ± 1.487 % of extract content, 6.2 % of residual water, and showed a complete release of thyme extract within one hour. Combining alginate and chitosan as polymeric co-carrier was a valuable option for efficiently encapsulating an aqueous extract by ionotropic gelation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying is one of the oldest, most common, and economical techniques typically employed for producing dry powders from flowable feeds which can be a solution, dispersion, or even paste. In the food industry, spray drying technology has also been employed as a means for microencapsulation of food active ingredients such as oils, fragrances, and flavors. Spray drying as a microencapsulation technique provides several beneficial functionalities such as easing handling of liquid labile active compounds, enhancing solubility, improving stability, providing protection against degradation, controlling or delaying release, and masking unpalatable tastes or smells. This article reviews the latest findings and research works on microencapsulation of food core materials by spray drying. It is aimed to give an overview of the vast variety of food active compounds studied in this particular area of interest. This article is organized by the type of food core material, i.e., oil, flavors, antioxidants and polyphenols, nutrients, pigments, vitamins, and enzymes, to facilitate comprehensive discussion on physicochemically similar compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Anthocyanins were extracted from grape skins by a combination of ethanolic‐ultrasonic assisted methods and were then encapsulated by freeze‐drying in soy phosphatidylcholine vesicles with the addition of different polymers, such as pectin, acacia gum, and whey protein isolate. The goal of this research was to microencapsulate anthocyanin compounds extracted from grape skins, to characterize the stability and behavior of the vesicles and then to use them to obtain a new light formulated mayonnaise. RESULTS: The particle size ranged from 900 nm in the control condition to 250 nm in vesicles loaded with whey proteins. The powders showed higher encapsulation efficiency for all variants, ranging from 81 to 96%. Vibrational spectroscopy revealed better inclusion of anthocyanins in polysaccharide‐based coacervates, whereas in protein‐based coacervates a possible interaction of anthocyanins with amine groups was observed. The vesicles were tested for in vitro release, and the results confirmed the gradual release of the anthocyanins in both stages of digestion, with a residual content of about 50% in the vesicles. The powders displayed high stability during storage in the dark at 4 °C. The panelists appreciated the new light formulated mayonnaises enriched with 10% dried vesicles compared with the control sample, in particular samples with acacia gum. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that polymer‐loaded vesicles presented stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluids and have proved successful in obtaining new light enriched mayonnaises. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work was to microencapsulate sacha inchi oil (SIO) by the complex coacervation technique using ovalbumin (OVA), tannic acid (TA) and pectin (PEC) as wall materials. The interaction between the biopolymers, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and the structural and thermal characteristics of the formed microcapsules were confirmed. In addition, the presence of phenolic compounds (TA) in the wall material increased the nutritional value of the microcapsules. In the process of microcapsule formation by complex coacervation, a pH value of 3.5 and an OVA:PEC ratio of 4:1 led to a high turbidity and a strong interaction between the biopolymers. The interaction between OVA-TA was confirmed and added value to the OVA and PEC complex. The EE% found was between 70 and 80%, with an ideal proportion and total concentration of biopolymers of 2: 1 (OVA-TA: PEC) and 2.0%, respectively. As demonstrated using the complex coacervation technique, the microcapsules showed high thermal stability and excellent encapsulating capacity without changing the chemical composition of SIO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthocyanins are value-added food ingredients that have health-promoting impacts and biological functionalities. Nevertheless, there are technological barriers to their application in the food industry, mainly because of their poor stability and susceptibility to harsh environmental conditions, such as oxygen, temperature, pH, and light, which could profoundly influence the final food product′s physicochemical properties. Microencapsulation technology is extensively investigated to enhance stability, bioaccessibility, and impart controlled release properties. There are many varieties of microencapsulation methods and diverse types of wall materials. However, choosing a proper approach involves considering the processing parameters, equipment availability, and application purposes. The present review thoroughly scrutinizes anthocyanins′ chemical structure, principles, benefits, and drawbacks of different microencapsulation methods, including spray drying, freeze drying, electrospinning/electrospraying, inclusion complexes, emulsification, liposomal systems, ionic gelation, and coacervation. Furthermore, wall materials applied in different techniques plus parameters that affect the powders′ encapsulation efficiency and physicochemical properties are discussed. Future studies should focus on various processing parameters and the combination of different techniques and applications regarding microencapsulated anthocyanins in functional foods to assess their stability, efficiency, and commercialization potentials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil microcapsule was prepared by spray drying. The effects of the wall-material parameters of wall-to-oil ratio (1:1 to 3:1) and type of wall material (gum arabic (GA), whey protein isolate (WPI), and octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) starch) on the microcapsules were evaluated. The droplet size, size distribution, viscosity, zeta potential, and stability of the emulsions were measured. The spray-dried powder was characterized by its morphology, yield, encapsulation efficiency, and moisture content. The wall material influenced the characteristics of the emulsions and microcapsules. The formulation with a 2:1 wall-to-oil ratio and OSA starch/maltodextrin as the wall material resulted in a small droplet size (0.177 ± 0.002 µm) with high encapsulation efficiency (98.38 ± 0.01%). This formulation had good physical stability over three months under accelerated conditions. Thus, OSA starch/maltodextrin is an appropriate wall material for encapsulating MCT oil.

Optimization of microencapsulation of sodium selenite 100–900 mg with a combination of Arabian gum 25–29% and Persian gum 5–1% per 20 ml mix spray solution by a solvent evaporation method using response surface methodology with central composite design (α = 2 with 6 central points and 2 repetition in axial and factorial points) were investigated. This study aimed to production of microencapsulated selenium with the highest encapsulation efficiency (EE) and the smallest particle-size for increasing soybean-oil shelf life against oxidation. The optimal-formula-1 (135 mg Na-selenite, Arabian to Persian gum ratio 9) with an actual EE of 77.35% and particle-size of 48.20 μm and the optimal-formula-2 (109 mg Na-selenite, Arabian to Persian gum ratio 14) with an actual EE of 93.74% and particle-size of 45.20 μm produced. Consequently, the un-microencapsulated sodium-selenite (8.6 ppm of sodium-selenite, equivalent to 3.93 ppm pure selenium, regarding recommended daily intake of 55 μg for Selenium and 14 g for oil), the two selected optimal formulas (containing 8.6 ppm sodium-selenite, i.e., 3.92 ppm pure selenium), the BHA (200 ppm), were added to refined antioxidant-free soybean oil (as a control treatment) and then were placed at the 55 °C for (0, 23, 46 days) equaled to 20 °C (0, 180, 360 days) by a shelf-life accelerator program. The oxidation indices including, total acid number, peroxide value, thiobarbituric acid value, para-Anisidine value, and Totox value as well as, antioxidant activity in soybean-oil over a 1-year storage-time at 20 °C showed the order of the proposed treatments were included 482 ppm optimal-formula-2 ≥ 391 ppm optimal-formula-1 ≥ 200 ppm BHA > 8.6 ppm un-microencapsulated Na-selenite > blank treatments. Optimization of selenium microencapsulation process using Arabian-Persian gum profile and different amounts of sodium slenite by RSM (Part 1) and Assessment of the oxidation indices in refined antioxidant-free soybean oil containing microencapsulated optimal formulas in 365-day storage time at 20 °C (Part 2) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of spray drying conditions on encapsulated rapeseed oil was investigated regarding the encapsulation efficiency (EE). The drying rate was modified by the solid content (25–55% w/w) of atomized feed droplets, the inlet temperature (140–220 °C) and relative humidity (0.12–1.57%) of the drying air. The moisture, aw, bulk and tapped density, particle size, and EE were analyzed. An accelerated drying rate due to a higher solid content and inlet temperature as well as a slower drying induced by an increased air humidity resulted in larger particle and more efficient encapsulation. A higher EE was obtained with increasing particle size which is in accordance with a theoretical EE calculated based on the particle- and oil droplet diameter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a novel approach to prepare spray‐dried encapsulated curcumin powder was investigated. The effects of surfactants viz. Tween 80 (at 0.25 to 0.75% wt) and lecithin (at 1% wt) and of a stabilizer viz. chitosan (at 0 to 0.375% wt) on the characteristics of curcumin‐based emulsions as well as on physicochemical properties of the resulting spray‐dried encapsulated powder were determined. The optimal emulsion was noted to be the one formulated with 0.50 and 0.25% wt, respectively, of Tween 80 and chitosan (T0.50/C0.25). Spray‐dried powder prepared from the optimal emulsion was compared to that prepared from an emulsion with 0.5% Tween 80 and 0% chitosan (T0.50/C0.00), as well as that from an emulsion with 0.25% Tween 80 and 0.25% chitosan (T0.25/C0.25). Physical properties of all powders were not significantly different. However, the encapsulation efficiency of T0.50/C0.25 powder (72.28%) was significantly higher than those of T0.50/C0.00 (47.19%) and T0.25/C0.25 powder (51.61%). Ferric reducing antioxidant powers of T0.50/C0.25 and T0.25/C0.25 powders were comparable but significantly higher than that of T0.50/C0.00 powder. After reconstitution, the mean particle sizes of T0.50/C0.25 and T0.25/C0.25 remained unchanged due to the protection by chitosan. T0.50/C0.00 powder was noted to exhibit the highest bioaccessibility (89.32%) in the simulated gastrointestinal tract. Practical Application: The results of this study can be used as a guideline to develop a stable formulation of curcumin feed emulsion that can later be transformed into an encapsulated powdery form via spray drying. Such a guideline should prove useful for a company looking for a way to produce high‐quality functional ingredients and/or products from curcumin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microencapsulation of oxidation sensitive oils aims to separate lipids from the environmental oxygen by embedding oil droplets in a solid matrix, which builds a physical barrier. Some oil droplets are not fully incorporated and are in contact with the powder surface generating surface oil. It is proposed that the probability of oil droplets being in contact with the particle surface increases with the oil droplet size. The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of the oil droplet size on the encapsulation efficiency (EE). Two sets of feed emulsions differing in the applied homogenization pressure and in the protein to oil ratio were spray dried using a pilot plant spray dryer. The oil droplet size of the emulsion was determined by static light scattering (SLS). In addition, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was used to measure the d3,2 of oil droplets in the emulsion and in the powder before and after surface oil removal. Encapsulates were analyzed regarding aw, moisture content, particle size, oil load and EE. The oil droplet size in the emulsion decreased with increasing protein to oil ratio as well as with the homogenization pressure. Large oil droplets and in particular droplet clusters resulted in more non-encapsulated oil. The experimentally determined EE was in accordance with the theoretical one, calculated based on the droplet and particle diameter. For emulsions with a diameter > 1 µm, the d3,2 decreased in the powder and further by removing the surface oil, which was related to the deformation of oil droplets contributing to the non-encapsulated oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In the present study, seven carbohydrates were selected as encapsulant for preparing lutein microencapsulated powders (LMPs). The surface morphology, physical properties, encapsulation efficiency, and thermo‐ and storage stability of LMPs were studied to determine the protective effects of different carbohydrates on microencapsulated lutein during spray drying and storage. Results on powder characteristics indicated that the crystal inhibition of wall material in spray drying was necessary for decent encapsulation efficiency, and higher glass transition temperature of wall material could cause high product yield. In stability assessment, degradation kinetics of different LMPs at two different temperature conditions were analysed, revealing that inulin could provide more effective protection compared with the other carbohydrate. Our results suggested that the different carbohydrates had great influence on the quality of LMPs, and inulin could be considered as an alternative for the generation of LMPs to enhance storage stability and extend shelf life of this bioactive product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Pequi oil is rich in bioactive compounds which can be encapsulated to increase protection against extrinsic environmental factors. A delayed degradation of pequi oil may occur by using microencapsulation technology, in addition to masking unpleasant flavors and aromas. Complex coacervation is a technique based on the electrostatic interaction between two oppositely charged biopolymers which form a matrix complexed around an agent of interest. However, cross-linking the particles is often necessary in order to make them more rigid. The objective of this research was to produce and characterize pequi oil microparticles in a cashew gum (CG) and gelatin (GE) matrix cross-linked with tannic acid. Cross-linked pequi oil microparticles were produced by varying the concentrations of biopolymers (0.5% to 1.5%) and tannic acid (0.3% to 8.1%) using a rotational central compound design. Ratio of cashew gum, gelatin and oil was 2:1:1 (m/m/m);respectively, at pH 4.5. The cross-linking process was performed with tannic acid for 30 minutes at 40 °C. The optimized formulation by means of the rotational central compound design for microparticle formation was 0.65% biopolymers (CG and GE) and 6.9% tannic acid. Increasing the tannic acid percentage in the cross-linking of the pequi oil particles had a higher yield and encapsulation efficiency. Cross-linking provided an increase in the degradation temperature of material; and consequently, improved the thermal stability of the particles. The cross-linking process was advantageous in producing the microparticles.

Two multi-functional powders, in terms of anthocyanins from black rice (Oryza sativa L.) and lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus paracasei, L. casei 431®) were obtained through co-microencapsulation into a biopolymer matrix composed of milk proteins and inulin. Two extracts were obtained using black rice flour as a raw material and hot water and ethanol as solvents. Both powders (called P1 for aqueous extract and P2 for ethanolic extract) proved to be rich sources of valuable bioactives, with microencapsulation efficiency up to 80%, both for anthocyanins and lactic acid bacteria. A higher content of anthocyanins was found in P1, of 102.91 ± 1.83 mg cyanindin-3-O-glucoside (C3G)/g dry weight (DW) when compared with only 27.60 ± 17.36 mg C3G/g DW in P2. The morphological analysis revealed the presence of large, thin, and fragile structures, with different sizes. A different pattern of gastric digestion was observed, with a highly protective effect of the matrix in P1 and a maximum decrease in anthocyanins of approximatively 44% in P2. In intestinal juice, the anthocyanins decreased significantly in P2, reaching a maximum of 97% at the end of digestion; whereas in P1, more than 45% from the initial anthocyanins content remained in the microparticles. Overall, the short-term storage stability test revealed a release of bioactive from P2 and a decrease in P1. The viable cells of lactic acid bacteria after 21 days of storage reached 7 log colony forming units (CFU)/g DW.

Background: Lavender oil consists of around 100 components and is susceptible to volatilisation and degradation reactions. Aim: Microencapsulate lavender oil by spray drying using a biocompatible polymeric blend of gum acacia and maltodextrin to protect the oil components. Effect of total polymer content, oil loading, gum acacia, and maltodextrin proportions on the size, yield, loading, and encapsulation efficiency of the microparticles was investigated. Methods: Morphology and oil localisation within microparticles were assessed by confocal laser scanning electron microscope. Structural preservation and compatibility were assessed using Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Results: Lavender microparticles of size 12.42 ± 1.79 µm prepared at 30 w/w% polymer concentration, 16.67 w/w% oil loading, and 25w/w% gum acacia showed maximum oil protection at high loading (12 mg w/w%), and encapsulation efficiency (77.89 w/w%). Conclusion: Lavender oil was successfully microencapsulated into stable microparticles by spray drying using gum acacia/maltodextrin polymeric blend. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Taro starch spherical aggregates have good potential as wall material for microencapsulation of hydrophobic compounds. This study considered these spherical aggregates for protection of almond oil against oxidative stress. Encapsulation efficiency, microcapsules morphology and physical and chemical stability of the microcapsules were determined. The total encapsulation efficiency (TE) was 56.0 ± 0.6%, while the effective encapsulation efficiency was 37.5 ± 0.5%. The size of the microcapsules was in the range 1.6–31.1 μm, with porous structure that allows the flow of solvents through the intraparticle cavities. It was found that the almond oil was located mostly in the internal cavities of the spherical aggregates. Spray drying induced an increase in the peroxide value of the almond oil at the time of microencapsulation, which in turn enhanced the chemical stability. The maximum physical stability of the microcapsules was found around 8.2 g∙100 g−1 of moisture content for temperatures in the range 25–45 °C of storage. Overall, the results showed that the spherical aggregates provide protection against oxidation reactions to microencapsulated almond oil. Highlights • Taro starch spherical aggregates have potential for microencapsulation of oil. • Total encapsulation efficiency of the almond oil was 56%. • Almond oil was located mostly in the internal cavities of the spherical aggregates. • Microcapsules size was in the range 1.6–31.1 μm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Encapsulation of caffeine in different polysaccharide materials (β-glucan, resistant starch, and β-cyclodextrin) by freeze drying technique to form caffeine loaded microparticles and determine their morphological, structural, and steady release behavior in simulated gastrointestinal (GI) conditions was studied. Swelling index of β-glucan and resistant starch was observed highest at pH 3 whereas at pH 6.5 swelling index decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.05). The morphology of the particles was characterized using SEM. The peaks at 1700 cm −1 , 950 cm −1 and 1300-1350 cm −1 confirm the presence of caffeine in encapsulated wall materials as shown by FTIR. DSC analysis revealed decrease in peak melting temperature of caffeine loaded microparticles. The particle size distribution revealed largest size of 297.553 μm for resistant starch and smallest mean particle size of 95.17 μm corresponding to that of β-cyclodextrin whereas the highest encapsulation efficiency (96%) was observed in β-glucan. β-glucan showed maximum decline in the release of caffeine followed by resistant starch and β-cyclodextrin under mimicked stomach conditions whereas RS provided more slow release in intestinal conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water in oil in water (WOW) double emulsions are of great interest for the encapsulation of valuable substances. Nevertheless, the stabilization against inner water loss is still a challenging issue that impedes systematical research on the impact of the formulation. One common and applied technique to characterize the amount of inner water encapsulated in double emulsions is based on differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Thereby, WOW double emulsions are frozen and thawed according to a defined method and afterward the amount of encapsulated water is calculated based on the DSC measurement result. For systematical investigations on the formulations’ impact on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), structure stability during this freezing and thawing procedure is required to be independent of formulation changes, whereby the EE is defined as the ratio between the amount of inner water after a specific time and the initial amount of water used for preparation of the double emulsion. In this study, we focused on the structural stability of double emulsions during their characterization by DSC. We prepared WOW double emulsions with varied formulations and characterized them considering inner and outer droplet size distribution (laser diffraction), microstructure (microscope), and EE (DSC). In some cases, the EE values determined by DSC were not reproducible and contradicted microscopic pictures and measured droplet size distributions. By using a polarizing microscope with temperature-controlled sample chamber, structure changes during the freezing and thawing procedure could be observed. Contact-induced crystallization, water diffusion as well as the spread of the phase transition temperature are discussed as reasons for the barely reproducible and sometimes contradictory results. Based on our findings, it is recommended for further studies on double emulsions to examine the structure stability during the DSC measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entrapment efficiency (EE) is a crucial parameter for the evaluation of nanocarriers. The accurate measurement of EE demands clear separation of nanocarriers from free drugs, which so far has not been clearly validated due to a lack of functional tools to identify nanocarriers. Herein, an environment-responsive water-quenching fluorophore was employed to label and identify model nanocarriers, polycaprolactone nanoparticles (PN), methoxy polyethylene glycol-poly(d,l-lactic acid) polymeric micelles (PM) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN). The separation process of three commonly used methods (centrifugation, ultrafiltration and gel permeation chromatography) was visualized by live imaging. The separation efficiency of the centrifugation method is very poor, especially for PM (40 nm), SLN (100 nm) and PN (100 nm); only PN (200 nm) can be efficiently separated but at a consumption of enormous energy. The ultrafiltration method shows the best separation efficiency with only 0.32–0.93% of leakage of the nanocarriers. Gel permeation chromatography exhibits good separation as well but suffers from low recovery, a potential factor that might compromise the accuracy of EE measurement. In conclusion, the ultrafiltration method is the method of choice for efficient separation and accurate measurement of EE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Omega-3 fatty acids, specifically docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22 carbons and 6 double bonds) are fundamental compounds for a healthy diet. However, due to their unsaturated nature, omega fatty acid-rich oils are chemically unstable and susceptible to oxidative deterioration. The oxidation results in production of free radicals and unpleasant tastes, negatively impacting the shelf-life, sensory properties, and acceptability of food products. This study was conducted to examine the effect of wall materials on protection of DHA in canola oil against oxidation. A total of 4 wall materials including pea protein isolate (PPI), pea protein isolate - modified starch complex (PPI-MS), Tween 20, and SDS were used for microemulsion preparation with canola oil containing DHA. The freeze-dried powders were analyzed with respect to physicochemical characteristics, oxidative stability, and release properties. The results showed that the PPI-MS as a natural polymeric wall material exhibited similar or better encapsulation efficiency and acceptable level of peroxide value compared to the synthetic surfactants (Tween 20 and SDS). The utilization of protein-polysaccharide complexes enabled the incorporation of specific properties of each biopolymer to further improve emulsion stability for the production of capsules with improved oxidative stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to prepare concentrated water-in-oil-in-water (W 1 /O/W 2 ) double emulsions to entrap resveratrol (RSV) with high encapsulation efficiency, good stability, and appropriate rheological behaviour. W 1 /O was formulated with an ethanol/water RSV solution (W 1 ) dispersed in Miglyol 812 (O) (20 vol%) with polyglycerol polyricinoleate as stabiliser. W 2 was a 2% w/v Tween 20 solution with and without sodium carboximethylcellulose as thickening agent. Different volumetric ratios (20/80 to 80/20) of W 1 /O dispersed into W 2 were used. W 1 /O/W 2 emulsions were characterized in terms of visual inspection, droplet size distribution, and stability. The rheology of these double emulsions was fully studied. Actual encapsulation efficiency was determined considering the non-encapsulated RSV recovery yield. The concentrated W 1 /O/W 2 double emulsions with the optimum formulation showed high encapsulation efficiency (up to 58%), good storage stability, shear-thinning behaviour, and dominant elastic character, with 6.2 mg/L of encapsulated RSV. These double emulsions may be suitable for food applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The microencapsulation of maqui juice by spray-drying was studied as a strategy to protect anthocyanins in new value-added formulations. The objective of this research was to study the influence of each maqui-anthocyanin and encapsulating agent (inulin or sodium alginate) on the anthocyanin encapsulation efficiency, the stability during storage (160 days at 60 °C) and the bioaccessibility in in vitro digestion model. The highest encapsulation efficiency of anthocyanins (65.6–78.6%) was obtained with inulin. The chemical structure of anthocyanins also influenced the encapsulation efficiency; the highest was 78.6% for delphinidin-3-sambubioside-5-glucoside in maqui juice-inulin, and 51.2% for cyanidin-3-glucoside in maqui juice-alginate. For both maqui juice-inulin and maqui juice-alginate microparticles, the half-life values of delphinidin-3-sambubioside (198 days), delphinidin-3-glucoside (173–182 days) and cyanidin-3-glucoside (154-133 days) showed the lowest stability of 3- O -glycosylated anthocyanins. The bioaccessibility of anthocyanins of the maqui juice microparticles was 10% higher than maqui juice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ultra-fine particle processing system (UPPS) was more advantageous in producing microparticles (MPs) than the conventional technologies since it was applicable for a wide range of drugs and the MPs could be manufactured in a successive and controllable way under mild conditions. The MPs based on this technology showed small uniform particle size, proper surface roughness, and dense structure, which were anticipated to benefit tablet compaction. Therefore, ethyl cellulose (EC) was selected as the matrix material to confirm the superiorities of UPPS produced MPs for compaction due to its rigidity and inflexibility. To improve the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of EC based MPs, hydrophilic/hydrophobic plasticizers and polymers were added, and the effect was mechanistically investigated regarding to the polymer properties and particle size of MPs. The results revealed that the EE% of MPs was significantly improved in the presence of hydrophilic polymers, which was mainly related to the reduced drug leakage as a result of modified polymer properties and decreased particle size of MPs. The forming mechanism of MPs determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed that the MPs were enriched with low molecular weight polymers on the surface due to the unevenly migration driven by the centrifugal force. The topography of MPs determined by atomic force microscopy showed that the MPs had considerable rough surface to the commercial excipient, which benefited for further compaction. Consequently, the dissolution profile of MPs after compaction was approachable to that of original MPs and the tablets showed optimal content uniformity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study, we established a procedure based on the microencapsulation vesicle (MCV) method for preparing surface‐modified liposomes, using polyethylene glycol (PEG) and a site‐directed ligand, with high entrapment efficiency of cytochrome c (Cyt c). For preparing a water‐in‐oil (W/O) emulsion, egg phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol were dissolved in organic solvents (O phase) and emulsified by sonication with aqueous solution of Cyt c (W1). Although the dispersion stability of the W1/O emulsion was low when n‐hexane was used to dissolve the lipids in the O phase, it was substantially improved by using mixed solvents consisting of n‐hexane and other organic solvents, such as ethanol and dichloromethane (DCM). The W1/O emulsion was then added to another water phase (W2) to prepare the W1/O/W2 emulsion. PEG‐ and/or ligand‐modified lipids were introduced into the W2 phase as external emulsifiers not only for stabilizing the W1/O/W2 emulsion but also for modifying the surface of liposomes obtained later. After solvent evaporation and extrusion for downsizing the liposomes, approximately 50% of Cyt c was encapsulated in the liposomes when the mixed solvent consisting of n‐hexane and DCM at a volume ratio of 75/25 was used in the O phase. Finally, the fluorescence‐labeled liposomes, with a peptide ligand having affinity to the vasculature in adipose tissue, were prepared by the MCV method and intravenously injected into mice. Confocal microscopy showed the substantial accumulation of these liposomes in the adipose tissue vessels. Taken together, the MCV technique, along with solvent optimization, could be useful for generating surface‐modified liposomes with high drug entrapment efficiency for targeted delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virgin coconut oil (VCO) has been shown to have health-promoting effects due to its high medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) content and antioxidant properties, however, its taste and feeling of greasiness are not acceptable to many consumers. In this study, VCO was microencapsulated to develop a new and healthy consumable food product. Spray drying VCO with supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO 2 ) at pressures from 12 to 16 MPa, temperatures from 40 to 60 °C was studied for an emulsion feed flow rate that was varied from 3 to 5 mL/min. The encapsulation efficiencies ranged from 73% to 80%, the microcapsules were spherical with diameters that ranged from 27 to 72 μm and the antioxidant activities of the retained microencapsulated oil ranged from 0.6 to 1.0 mmol butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) equivalent/ml oil and 0.8–1.3 mmol trolox equivalent/ml oil for 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) tests and 2,2′-azino-bis (ABTS) tests, respectively. SC-CO 2 spray drying is an effective method to encapsulate VCO and other food oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Effective encapsulation of drugs into the delivery systems could increase the efficiency of nanoparticles in prevention and treatment of diseases. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the different methods for determination of encapsulation efficiency of a model protein in the PLGA nanoparticles. METHODS: The various direct methods include dichloromethane, acetonitrile, modified acetonitrile and NaOH based extraction and radioactive methods were used to directly calculate the encapsulation efficiency of the loaded protein in the PLGA nanoparticles. Furthermore, indirect methods include BCA, Fluorescent and radioactive methods were compared. RESULTS: The encapsulation efficiencies determined by indirect methods include dichloromethane, acetonitrile, modified acetonitrile, NaOH based extraction and radioactive methods were 12.62% ± 1.97, 17.43% ± 2.51, 64.69% ± 4.31, 86.36% ± 2.25 and 90.15% ± 1.78, respectively. Moreover, the encapsulation efficiencies determined by indirect methods include BCA, fluorescent and radioactive methods were 81.46% ± 1.92, 88.23% ± 1.15 and 89.6% ± 1.9, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Among the results obtained by indirect methods, radioactive and fluorescent methods showed more reliable. Moreover, NaOH and radioactive methods were the most reliable methods among the direct methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was to study the use of different prebiotic biopolymers in lime essential oil microencapsulation. Whey protein isolate, inulin and oligofructose biopolymers were used. The addition of prebiotic biopolymers reduced emulsion viscosity, although it produced larger droplet sizes (0.31–0.32 µm). Moisture values (2.94–3.13 g/100 g dry solids) and water activity (0.152–0.185) were satisfactory, being within the appropriate range for powdered food quality. Total oil content, limonene retention values and antioxidant activity of the microparticles containing essential oil decreased in the presence of the carbohydrates. The addition of prebiotic biopolymers reduced the microparticle thermal stability. X-ray diffraction confirmed the amorphous characteristic of the microparticles and the interaction of the essential oil with the wall material. The presence of prebiotic biopolymers can be a good alternative for lime essential oil microparticles, mainly using fibre that has a functional food appeal and can improve consumer health. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Phytosterols are used to lower the blood cholesterol. β-Sitosterol is one of the most important phytosterols with very poor water solubility and bioaccessibility. The main goal of the current research was to investigate the effects of different emulsification variables (i.e. shear, time, pressure and cycle) on the physicochemical properties, release behaviour and encapsulation efficiency of β-sitosterol in water-in-oil-in water (W/O/W) emulsion. Initially, 19 β-sitosterol emulsions were prepared under different experimental conditions (shear 3000 and 6000 rpm; time 2.5 and 5 min; pressure 100, 200 and 300 bar; cycle 1-3). In this study, the β-sitosterol emulsion prepared at 6000 rpm, 5 min, 300 bar and 3 cycles had the smallest average droplet size (139 nm) among all prepared samples. The interaction between shear and time showed the most significant ( P < 0.05) effect on the polydispersity index (PDI) and turbidity of the β-sitosterol emulsion. Increasing homogenization pressure and cycle led to improving emulsion stability and encapsulation efficiency. The β-sitosterol emulsion homogenised at 100 bar for 1 cycle had the highest encapsulation efficiency (81.7%) among all samples. The optimization study showed that the emulsification at 300 bar for 3 cycles resulted in the most desirable β-sitosterol emulsion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]