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Many youth experience mental health problems. Schools are an ideal setting to identify, prevent, and intervene in these problems. The purpose of this study was to investigate patterns of student social, emotional, and behavioral risk over time among a community sample of 3rd through 12th grade students and the association of these risk patterns with fidelity to a school-based mental health model. Overall growth of social, emotional, and behavioral problems declined over a 3-year period. Four classes of students were identified using growth mixture modeling: (1) students with high levels of problems; (2) students with decreasing problems; (3) students with increasing problems; and (4) students with stable, low levels of problems. These growth trajectories were associated with fidelity to the model, in that trajectories where students with higher or increasing problems were more likely to be from schools with lower fidelity. Implications for practice and policy are provided. [This article was published in "School Psychology Review" (EJ1292056).]

As leaders in the school, principals play an important role in fostering family engagement. Unfortunately, little is known about specific aspects of leadership that promote family engagement. Collegial leadership, an aspect of principal leadership that promotes organizational health via trusting relationships and a sense of community, may be particularly useful to understanding how principals influence family engagement. Drawing on data from two randomized controlled trials evaluating the effects of teacher training in universal classroom management practices, the current study explores the relationship between teacher reports of family engagement and principal collegial leadership. Participants included 3208 students and 207 teachers across 18 elementary and middle schools in the Midwest United States. Utilizing hierarchical linear modeling, results revealed a significant positive relationship between family engagement and overall collegial leadership in addition to specific collegial leadership practices/characteristics. Further, baseline collegial leadership predicted increased end-of-year family engagement when controlling for baseline family engagement, developmental context, intervention status, and student-level characteristics. Overall, results provide empirical evidence for an important link between principal leadership practices and family engagement. Albeit promising, more research is needed to identify and explain the particular mechanisms by which principal collegial leadership may promote family engagement.

Universal interventions implemented in schools have the potential to impact large numbers of students on a multitude of behavioral and academic outcomes. In the context of a large group randomized controlled trial, the current study examined whether teacher-perceived student need for behavior support plans at baseline moderated the effects of a middle school universal classroom management training program, CHAMPS, which stands for Conversation, Help, Activity, Movement, Participation, and Success, on student outcomes. We hypothesized that students in CHAMPS classrooms who were identified by teachers at baseline as needing behavior support plans would have greater end-of-year improvements on behavior and academic outcomes relative to comparable youth in non-CHAMPS classrooms. Results indicated baseline teacher-perceived student behavior support need moderated some intervention outcomes; in particular, youth at risk in CHAMPS classrooms demonstrated improvements in concentration problems (b = -0.19) and communication arts outcomes (b = 0.13) compared with youth at risk in control group classrooms. Implications of these findings and future research are discussed.

The use of suspension practices is extremely widespread but few studies have examined the behavioral and psychological outcomes associated with their application. Using a predominantly Black sample of 788 middle school students from the Midwestern United States, the current study evaluates the relations between in-school suspensions (ISS) and out-of-school suspensions (OSS) received during the course of the school year and student self-efficacy, engagement, prosocial behavior, emotion regulation, concentration, internalizing problems, and disruptive behavior based on student and teacher ratings collected at the end of the school year. Regression models were used to evaluate associations between the total number of ISS and OSS exposures on end of school year outcome measures controlling for beginning of school year measures and demographic characteristics. Results indicated that ISS and OSS are both associated with less prosocial behavior, lower levels of emotion regulation, and a greater extent of disruptive behavior and concentration problems at the end of the school year, even after controlling for these behaviors at the start of the school year. Implications of the potential impacts and distribution of suspension practices are discussed. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED625979.]

The use of suspension practices is extremely widespread but few studies have examined the behavioral and psychological outcomes associated with their application. Using a predominantly Black sample of 788 middle school students from the Midwestern United States, the current study evaluates the relations between in-school suspensions (ISS) and out-of-school suspensions (OSS) received during the course of the school year and student self-efficacy, engagement, prosocial behavior, emotion regulation, concentration, internalizing problems, and disruptive behavior based on student and teacher ratings collected at the end of the school year. Regression models were used to evaluate associations between the total number of ISS and OSS exposures on end of school year outcome measures controlling for beginning of school year measures and demographic characteristics. Results indicated that ISS and OSS are both associated with less prosocial behavior, lower levels of emotion regulation, and a greater extent of disruptive behavior and concentration problems at the end of the school year, even after controlling for these behaviors at the start of the school year. Implications of the potential impacts and distribution of suspension practices are discussed.

Despite decades of concern about disparities in educational outcomes for low SES students and students of color, there has been limited rigorous study of programmatic approaches for reducing these disparities in elementary or middle schools. We conducted integrative data analysis (IDA) of the combined data from eight Institute of Education Sciences funded cluster randomized trials to address the research gaps on social and behavioral outcome disparities. The final analytic sample includes 90,880 students in varying grade levels from kindergarten to grade 8 in 387 schools in 4 states (Maryland, Missouri, Virginia, and Texas). Two-level hierarchical linear modeling was used for multilevel moderation analysis. This study provided empirical evidence that there were significant gender, racial, and socioeconomic disparities on social and behavioral outcome measures for elementary and middle school students, the disparities significantly varied across schools, and the disparities could be reduced by interventions. We discussed our findings, implications for interpreting effect sizes of interventions using disparities as empirical benchmarks, and study limitations. We concluded with suggestions for future research. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED622033.]

The present study investigated the effects of parental monitoring, neighborhood risk, and racism experiences during early adolescence on adolescents' emotional and behavioral outcomes in high school. Five hundred twenty-two African American youth and their parents and teachers completed surveys about youth development over time. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that neighborhood risk and racism had small and significant relations with anxiety, oppositional behavior, and conduct problems. Additionally, parental monitoring moderated the effects of neighborhood risk on behavior problems in both 9th and 12th grade, controlling for baseline problems. Finally, parental monitoring did not moderate effects of risk contexts on the development of anxiety problems. Findings are discussed with regard to implications for supporting effective parenting practices in high-risk contexts.

This study examined the stress and coping patterns of middle school teachers. A final teacher sample of 102 and student sample of 1450 agreed to participate in the study. We conducted a latent profile analysis of the teachers' self-reported levels of stress and coping at the beginning of the school year and used the resulting profiles to predict teacher practices and student outcomes over time. Nearly all teachers were characterized by high stress and high coping (66%) or high stress and low coping (28%). Based on concurrent ratings and observations, the High Stress/Low Coping profile had higher burnout and lower self-efficacy, higher rates of observed reprimands, and higher student-reported depression in comparison to the other classes. The most adaptive profile, Low Stress/High Coping (6% of sample), had lower burnout, greater parent involvement and higher student prosocial skills in comparison to the other groups. Profiles also predicted the maintenance of most of these effects and the increase of some effects over the school year. Examining stress and coping in combination can inform efforts to improve teacher well-being and have a positive influence on student learning environments.

Research has supported the applied use of Direct Behavior Rating Single-Item Scale (DBR-SIS) targets of "academic engagement" and "disruptive behavior" for a range of purposes, including universal screening and progress monitoring. Though useful in evaluating social behavior and externalizing problems, these targets have limited utility in evaluating emotional behavior and internalizing problems. Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to support the initial development and validation of a novel DBR-SIS target of "unhappy," which was intended to tap into the specific construct of depression. A particular focus of this study was on the novel target's utility within universal screening. A secondary purpose was to further validate the aforementioned existing DBR-SIS targets. Within this study, 87 teachers rated 1,227 students across two measures (i.e., DBR-SIS and the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation--Checklist [TOCA-C]) and time points (i.e., fall and spring). Correlational analyses supported the test-retest reliability of each DBR-SIS target, as well as its convergent and discriminant validity across concurrent and predictive comparisons. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses further supported (a) the overall diagnostic accuracy of each target (as indicated by the area under the curve [AUC] statistic), as well as (b) the selection of cut scores found to accurately differentiate at-risk and not at-risk students (as indicated by conditional probability statistics). A broader review of findings suggested that across the majority of analyses, the existing DBR-SIS targets outperformed the novel "unhappy" target. [This article was published in "School Psychology" (EJ1201848).]

Although family-school engagement is important across child and adolescent development, most research, programs, and policies have focused primarily on elementary students and contexts. The current study extends beyond elementary settings by exploring the unique and shared contributions of developmental context on family-school engagement (i.e., across and within elementary- and middle-school settings). Data were drawn from two randomized controlled trials that evaluated the efficacy of teacher training in universal classroom-management practices. Participants included 3,174 students and 207 teachers across 21 elementary and middle schools in the Midwest. Using hierarchical linear modeling, results revealed that family-school engagement was significantly higher in elementary than in middle schools. Student-level characteristics (i.e., identifying as White, participation in the free/reduced-price lunch program, and having lower levels of disruptive behavior) were also associated with higher levels of family-school engagement. In addition, student characteristics (i.e., race/ethnicity and level of disruptive behavior) moderated the relations between family-school engagement and developmental context. Regardless of developmental context, family-school engagement predicted positive end-of-year behavioral outcomes (i.e., increases in youth prosocial skills and decreases in youth concentration problems, disruptive behaviors, and emotional dysregulation). Last, moderation analyses revealed that these effects of family-school engagement were especially pronounced in middle school for concentration problems and emotional dysregulation. Overall, findings provide further support for the value of family-school engagement across development in fostering positive youth outcomes. However, it is evident that more steps must be taken to ensure family-school engagement practices are developed to support the unique needs of middle-school students and contexts. [This article was published in "School Psychology" (EJ1221800).]

As many as 1 in 5 youth in the United States experience social, emotional, and behavioral problems. However, many students with mental health concerns are unidentified and do not receive adequate care. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the factor structure, measurement invariance, and the concurrent and predictive validity of the Early Identification System--Student Report (EIS-SR), a screener for social, emotional, and behavioral problems, using a sample of over 5000 students from Grades 3 to 5. The EIS-SR was developed by using extant literature on the risk indicators that lead to social, emotional, and behavioral challenges among children and youth. As expected, seven subscales were identified as having adequate factor loadings. Furthermore, the measure was determined to be invariant across grade level (n = 5005), gender (n = 5005), and between Black and White students (n = 1582). The concurrent validity of the Internalizing Behavior, Attention and Academic Issues, Emotion Dysregulation, and School Disengagement subscales was supported by correlations with comparable subscales of the Behavior Assessment System for Children--3rd Edition (BASC-3; n = 382). Additionally, the EIS-SR subscales administered in the fall of the school year were predictive of important outcomes in spring, including attendance (n = 4780), disciplinary referrals (n = 4938), bully victimization (n = 4670), math academic achievement scores (n = 4736), and reading (n = 4772) academic achievement scores. The EIS-SR holds promise as a feasible and technically adequate screening tool for use in elementary schools.

This cluster randomized controlled trial evaluated the efficacy of the CHAMPS classroom management program on the social behavioral and academic outcomes of a large diverse sample of middle school students within an urban context. Participants included 102 teachers and 1,450 students in sixth to eighth grade. Two-level hierarchical linear models (HLM) were conducted to examine the overall treatment effects on student behavior and academic outcomes. In addition, mediation analyses examined a hypothesized putative mechanism for observed academic outcomes. Findings indicated that CHAMPS improved teacher ratings of student concentration problems (d = -0.18) and classwork completion (d = 0.18), observed student time-on-task (d = 0.16), and student scores on broad English (d = 0.14), and math problem solving (d = 0.17) academic achievement tests. Null effects were observed for student prosocial and disruptive behaviors and self-regulation skills as well as reading comprehension and broad math achievement performance. Main effects on the English achievement test scores were partially mediated by student improvements in observed time-on-task. Practical significance of the findings and implications for schools and policymakers are discussed.

This article presents findings from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) testing the impact of a novel coaching approach utilized as one element of the Double Check cultural responsivity and student engagement model. The RCT included 158 elementary and middle school teachers randomized to receive coaching or serve as comparisons; all participating teachers were exposed to school-wide professional development activities. Pre-post nonexperimental comparisons indicated improvements in self-reported culturally responsive behavior management and self-efficacy for teachers in both conditions following professional development exposure. With regard to the experimental findings, trained observers recorded significantly more proactive behavior management and anticipation of student problems by teachers, higher student cooperation, less student noncooperation, and fewer disruptive behaviors in classrooms led by coached teachers relative to comparison teachers. Taken together, the findings suggest the potential promise of coaching combined with school-wide professional development for improving classroom management practices and possibly reducing office discipline referrals among Black students.

This study examined the feasibility and potential efficacy of the Resilience Education Program (REP), a Tier 2 school-based internalizing intervention. REP represents a hybrid intervention approach, incorporating both small-group cognitive-behavioral instruction and a check-in/check-out reinforcement-based mentorship program. A randomized controlled trial research design was employed, in which students (grades 4-7) were randomly assigned to treatment (n = 21) or waitlist control (n = 17) groups. Given the early phase of REP research, the trial was underpowered but capable of generating unbiased effect size estimates that could inform subsequent fully powered efficacy trials. Outcomes of interest included student internalizing concerns (as reported by teacher and self-report measures) and the change mechanisms by which REP was theorized to influence internalizing concerns (i.e., emotional control and social support). Primary MANCOVA findings indicated that although non-statistically significant, between-group differences in youth self-reported and teacher-reported internalizing concerns corresponded to large effect sizes ([partial eta-squared] = 0.15-0.19). A follow-up MANCOVA inclusive of change mechanism variables was also non-statistically significant, but representative of a large effect ([partial eta-squared] = 0.38). Following trial completion, REP implementers positively rated the acceptability of the REP intervention as a Tier 2 intervention for addressing internalizing concerns in the school setting.

This study examined the benefit of utilizing one-item academic and one-item behavior readiness teacher-rated screeners at the beginning of the school year to predict end-of-school year outcomes for middle school students. The Middle School Academic and Behavior Readiness (M-ABR) screeners were developed to provide an efficient and effective way to assess readiness in students. Participants included 889 students in 62 middle school classrooms in an urban Missouri school district. Concurrent validity with the M-ABR items and other indicators of readiness in the fall were evaluated using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, with the academic readiness item having medium to strong correlations with other baseline academic indicators (r = ± 0.56 to 0.91) and the behavior readiness item having low to strong correlations with baseline behavior items (r = ± 0.20 to 0.79). Next, the predictive validity of the M-ABR items was analyzed with hierarchical linear regressions using end-of-year outcomes as the dependent variable. The academic and behavior readiness items demonstrated adequate validity for all outcomes with moderate effects ([beta] = ± 0.31 to 0.73 for academic outcomes and [beta] = ± 0.24 to 0.59 for behavioral outcomes) after controlling for baseline demographics. Even after controlling for baseline scores, the M-ABR items predicted unique variance in almost all outcome variables. Four conditional probability indices were calculated to obtain an optimal cut score, to determine ready vs. not ready, for both single-item M-ABR scales. The cut point of "fair" yielded the most acceptable values for the indices. The odd ratios (OR) of experiencing negative outcomes given a "fair" or lower readiness rating (2 or below on the M-ABR screeners) at the beginning of the year were significant and strong for all outcomes (OR = 2.29 to OR = 14.46), except for internalizing problems. These findings suggest promise for using single readiness items to screen for varying negative end-of-year student outcomes.

Early adolescence represents a critical developmental period for the identification, prevention, and early intervention of mental health concerns. The Early Identification System--Student Report (EIS-SR) was developed as a user-friendly, accessible, and cost-efficient method for identifying youth at risk for mental health concerns. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the EIS-SR in a sample of middle school students in the Midwest. Two confirmatory factor analyses (N1 = 2,404, N2 = 2,404) supported the hypothesized seven correlated factor model showing adequate model fit and subscale reliability (range = 0.68-0.90). Subsequent analyses found that many of the EIS-SR subscales predicted office discipline referrals, suspensions, and standardized academic achievement performance. Additionally, the subscales correlated in expected ways with subscales of the Behavior Assessment Scales for Children (3rd edition). These findings suggest that the EIS-SR is promising for identifying youth in early adolescence who are at risk for mental health concerns in addition to being a free and efficient universal screening tool.

Literature suggests that improving teacher use of culturally responsive classroom management strategies may reduce the disproportionate number of racial and ethnic minority students who receive exclusionary discipline actions and are identified as needing special education, particularly for emotional and behavioral disorders. Coaching teachers is one way to support teachers' development of such culturally responsive classroom management strategies; however, there is limited research on the implementation and teacher-perceived acceptability of coaching, both broadly and for this specific skill set. In this article, we focus on the adaptation of the Classroom Check-Up (CCU) coaching model for addressing culturally responsive classroom management strategies; we discuss issues related to the implementation dosage, fidelity, feasibility, and acceptability of the CCU model. Specifically, data from 146 coached teachers are included and summarize how coaches spent their time, the fidelity to the coaching model, and acceptability and feasibility of the CCU model. Findings indicated that the CCU required about 3 hours of active teacher participation. Coaches spent a substantial amount of time collecting data in the classroom as well as building relationships and trust within the schools to facilitate uptake. The results suggested that coaches implemented the model as intended and that the time required of teachers is relatively modest. Teachers provided positive feedback about four domains of the coaching, indicating the acceptability and feasibility of this adapted version of the CCU.

Many youth experience mental health problems. Schools are an ideal setting to identify, prevent, and intervene in these problems. The purpose of this study was to investigate patterns of student social, emotional, and behavioral risk over time among a community sample of 3rd through 12th grade students and the association of these risk patterns with fidelity to a school-based mental health model. Overall growth of social, emotional, and behavioral problems declined over a 3-year period. Four classes of students were identified using growth mixture modeling: (1) students with high levels of problems, (2) students with decreasing problems, (3) students with increasing problems, and (4) students with stable, low levels of problems. These growth trajectories were associated with fidelity to the model, in that trajectories where students with higher or increasing problems were more likely to be from schools with lower fidelity. Implications for practice and policy are provided.

Mental health (MH) stigma affects help seeking behaviors of youth, particularly youth of color. This article reports the impact of Look Around (LA), a social media campaign designed to reduce MH stigma and increase help seeking in 6th- to 12th-grade youth in one Midwestern county. The campaign utilized movie theater advertising, social media, web-based advertising, and school-based media/events over a school year. Using a pre--posttest survey research design with 11,478 6th- to 12th-grade students in a Midwestern county, we used paired t-tests to examine pre- to posttest changes in survey items addressing MH stigma and help seeking attitudes. We then used a regression model to examine change by racial subgroup on a composite of all the items. Lastly, we used an independent t-test to examine differences between high-change youth and low-change youth on academic performance, attendance, discipline, and MH screening scores. Posttest improvements in the stigma and help-seeking for all youth were observed, but controlling for all covariates (grade level, sex, etc.), youth of color reported lower levels of change compared to White youth. Social media campaigns are useful in addressing MH stigma and help seeking, but messaging may need to attend to the cultural characteristics of all youth.

An identified barrier to the widespread adoption of universal socioemotional and behavioral screening in schools may be that existing instruments may be too burdensome or costly to administer. As a result, the County Schools Mental Health Coalition came together to develop a common assessment system, the Early Identification System (EIS). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the EIS-student report, using a sample of third- to eighth-grade students. A series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic models were used with one exploratory (n[subscript 1] = 450) and two holdout samples (n[subscript 2] = 450, n[subscript 3] = 940). A six correlated factor model was supported showing adequate model fit, reliability (range = 0.73-0.90), and convergent validity. Results suggest that the EIS is a promising, cost-free, and quick-to-administer universal screening tool that may assist educators and school psychologists identify students at risk of future socioemotional and behavioral difficulties.

Although family-school engagement is important across child and adolescent development, most research, programs, and policies have focused primarily on elementary students and contexts. The current study extends beyond elementary settings by exploring the unique and shared contributions of developmental context on family-school engagement (i.e., across and within elementary- and middle-school settings). Data were drawn from two randomized controlled trials that evaluated the efficacy of teacher training in universal classroom-management practices. Participants included 3,174 students and 207 teachers across 21 elementary and middle schools in the Midwest. Using hierarchical linear modeling, results revealed that family-school engagement was significantly higher in elementary than in middle schools. Student-level characteristics (i.e., identifying as White, participation in the free/reduced-price lunch program, and having lower levels of disruptive behavior) were also associated with higher levels of family-school engagement. In addition, student characteristics (i.e., race/ethnicity and level of disruptive behavior) moderated the relations between family-school engagement and developmental context. Regardless of developmental context, family-school engagement predicted positive end-of-year behavioral outcomes (i.e., increases in youth prosocial skills and decreases in youth concentration problems, disruptive behaviors, and emotional dysregulation). Last, moderation analyses revealed that these effects of family-school engagement were especially pronounced in middle school for concentration problems and emotional dysregulation. Overall, findings provide further support for the value of family-school engagement across development in fostering positive youth outcomes. However, it is evident that more steps must be taken to ensure family-school engagement practices are developed to support the unique needs of middle-school students and contexts. Impact and Implications: Findings provide further support regarding the importance of family-school engagement across child and adolescent development. Further, results indicate that more attention must be provided to support family-school engagement during middle school.

Research has supported the applied use of Direct Behavior Rating Single-Item Scale (DBR-SIS) targets of "academic engagement" and "disruptive behavior" for a range of purposes, including universal screening and progress monitoring. Though useful in evaluating social behavior and externalizing problems, these targets have limited utility in evaluating emotional behavior and internalizing problems. Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to support the initial development and validation of a novel DBR-SIS target of "unhappy," which was intended to tap into the specific construct of depression. A particular focus of this study was on the novel target's utility within universal screening. A secondary purpose was to further validate the aforementioned existing DBR-SIS targets. Within this study, 87 teachers rated 1,227 students across two measures (i.e., DBR-SIS and the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation-Checklist [TOCA-C]) and time points (i.e., fall and spring). Correlational analyses supported the test-retest reliability of each DBR-SIS target, as well as its convergent and discriminant validity across concurrent and predictive comparisons. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses further supported (a) the overall diagnostic accuracy of each target (as indicated by the area under the curve [AUC] statistic), as well as (b) the selection of cut scores found to accurately differentiate at-risk and not at-risk students (as indicated by conditional probability statistics). A broader review of findings suggested that across the majority of analyses, the existing DBR-SIS targets outperformed the novel "unhappy" target.

This study examined the developmental trajectories of maladaptive perfectionism over a 7-year period among African American youth living in an urban setting (N = 547). In particular, the study attempted to determine whether two maladaptive aspects of perfectionism (socially prescribed and self-critical) changed over time and could be distinguished by variables in 6th and 12th grades (M[subscript age] at study entry [first grade] was 6.22 years [SD = 0.34]). Four classes best described the developmental trajectories on both measures of maladaptive perfectionism: high, low, increasing, and decreasing. Sixth- and 12th-grade correlates, including measures of internalizing symptoms, mostly confirmed the distinctiveness of these classes. Parallel process analyses suggested that the two processes are complementary, yet distinct. Implications regarding the prevention of maladaptive perfectionism are discussed.