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Background: Neither the global population nor individual countries have reached the World Health Organization (WHO) target of ≥50% of infants exclusively breastfed (EBF) until 6 mo. This may partly be because of the perceptions of insufficient milk and energy supply to meet rapid growth and development needs., Objectives: In a longitudinal observational study, we aimed to determine whether breastmilk energy content is sufficient to support growth during EBF until 6 mo., Methods: A sample of 27 EBF infants was dosed with doubly labeled water (DLW) at 5.6 mo to measure body composition, breastmilk intake, energy intake, and the metabolizable energy (ME) content of their mother's breastmilk over the following week. Z-scores were calculated for anthropometry using WHO reference data and for fat-free mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) using United Kingdom reference data., Results: Anthropometric z-scores from birth indicated normal weight and length growth patterns. At ∼6 mo, the mean ± standard deviation (SD) FFM z-score was 0.22 ± 1.07, and the FM z-score was 0.78 ± 0.70, significantly >0. In the 22 infants with acceptable data, the mean ± SD measured intake of breastmilk was 983 ± 170 g/d and of energy, 318 ± 60 kJ/kg/d, equivalent to 75.9 ± 14.3 kcal/kg/d. The mean ME content of breastmilk was 2.61 kJ/g [standard error (SE) 0.1], equivalent to 0.62 kcal/g (SE 0.02). Mothers were positive toward breastfeeding, on paid maternity leave (planned mean 10 mo), and many (56%) had received specialized breastfeeding support., Conclusions: The evidence from this study confirms that when mothers are motivated and supported without economic restraints, breastmilk intake and the energy supplied by breastmilk to EBF infants at 6 mo of age is sufficient to support normal growth patterns. There was no evidence of constraint on FFM, and other studies show that high FM in EBF infants is likely to be transient. These data further support the recommendation for EBF ≤6 mo of age for body composition. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02586571., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Iodine is an essential nutrient for growth and development during infancy. Data on iodine status of exclusively (EBF) and partially breastfed (PBF) infants as well as breast milk iodine concentration (BMIC) are scarce. We aimed to assess (a) infant iodine nutrition at the age of 5.5 months by measuring urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in EBF (n = 32) and PBF (n = 28) infants and (b) mothers' breast milk iodine concentration (n = 57). Sixty mother-infant pairs from three primary health care centres in Reykjavik and vicinities provided urine and breast milk samples for iodine analysis and information on mothers' habitual diet. The mother-infant pairs were participants of the IceAge2 study, which focuses on factors contributing to infant growth and development, including body composition and breast-milk energy content. The median (25th-75th percentiles) UIC was 152 (79-239) μg/L, with no significant difference between EBF and PBF infants. The estimated median iodine intake ranged from 52 to 86 μg/day, based on urinary data (assuming an average urine volume of 300-500 ml/day and UIC from the present study). The median (25th-75th percentiles) BMIC was 84 (48-114) μg/L. It is difficult to conclude whether iodine status is adequate in the present study, as no ranges for median UIC reflecting optimal iodine nutrition exist for infants. However, the results add important information to the relatively sparse literature on UIC, BMIC, and iodine intake of breastfed infants., (© 2020 The Authors. Maternal & Child Nutrition published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Breastfeeding during infancy may have beneficial effects on various developmental outcomes in childhood. In this study, exclusively breastfed infants were randomly assigned to receive complementary foods from the age of 4 months in addition to breast milk (CF, n = 60), or to exclusively breastfeed to 6 months (EBF, n = 59). At 18 months and again at 30-35 months of age, the children were evaluated with the Parent's Evaluation of Developmental Status questionnaire (PEDS) and the Brigance Screens-II. The parents completed the PEDS questionnaire at both time intervals and the children underwent the Brigance Screens-II at 30-35 months. At 30-35 months, no significant differences were seen in developmental scores from the Brigance screening test (p = 0.82). However, at 30-35 months a smaller percentage of parents in group CF (2%) had concerns about their children's gross motor development compared to those in group EBF (19%; p = 0.01), which remained significant when adjusted for differences in pre-randomization characteristics (p = 0.03). No sustained effect of a longer duration of exclusive breastfeeding was seen on selected measures of developmental and behavioral status at 18 months, although at 30-35 months, a smaller percentage of parents of children introduced to complementary foods at four months of age expressed concerns about their gross motor development.

In human breastmilk, T lymphocytes with gammadelta-receptor (TCR) are more frequent than those with alphabeta-TCR, in comparison with peripheral blood. Differential representation has also been demonstrated for subpopulations of gammadelta-T cells. Reactivity was visualized with three monoclonal antibodies against Vdelta1, Vdelta2 and Vgamma2 on T cells from the breastmilk and peripheral blood of 12 women who had recently given birth. Confirming the results with Vdelta1, it was found that Vdelta1 (p < 0.01) and Vgamma2 (p < 0.05) but not Vdelta2 were overrepresented on T cells in milk as compared with blood. This selective compartmentalization seems to reflect the homing of certain cells to the mammary gland.

The study aims to explore ideas about bad milk found among women in Guinea-Bissau. Interviews were held with 20 elderly knowledgeable rural women. Interinformant agreement was high within each ethnic group studied. All the informants recognized colostrum but disliked its consistency. Depending on ethnical background, it was considered good, of no special value or harmful to the newborn baby. Further, all the informants held that mature breast milk could turn bad, e.g. in case of mother's sickness or adultery. Suspected bad milk can be diagnosed by putting an ant into it to observe if it dies. The condition of bad milk can be treated by various procedures. The findings are discussed in relation to similar ideas existing in other societies and to views on the quality of maternal milk held in the industrialized countries. It is proposed that the idea of producing bad milk may be an important determinant of breastfeeding performance generally. Restrictions imposed on the breastfeeding woman, with the intention of producing healthier breast milk, may actually contribute to a decline in breastfeeding.