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In this work, we developed a novel approach for the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) coatings directly onto magnetic multicore nanoparticles (MMCs) using alternating magnetic fields to trigger the polymerization reaction. MIPs were synthesized with rhodamine 123 (R123) as model template molecule, methacrylic acid as functional monomer, and trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate as cross-linker. The amount of iron oxide nano particles and the composition of the polymerization mixture were optimized to enable the thermal polymerization of a thin MIP shell on each MMC using electromagnetic heating without altering the properties of the recognition layer. The thickness of the polymerized MIP layer grafted onto the MMCs was fine-tuned by adjusting the dose of electromagnetic field (101.4 kHz, total power dissipation = 105 W). The resulting magnetic multicore MIP nanoparticles (MMC-MIPs) were characterized by FT-R and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering.

Molecularly imprinted porous polymer microspheres selective to Alternaria mycotoxins, alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), were synthesized and applied to the extraction of both mycotoxins in food samples. The polymer was prepared using 4-vinylpiridine (VIPY) and methacrylamide (MAM) as functional monomers, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EDMA) as cross-linker and 3,8,9-trihydroxy-6 H -dibenzo[ b,d ]pyran-6-one (S2) as AOH surrogate template. A molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction (MISPE) method has been optimized for the selective isolation of the mycotoxins from aqueous samples coupled to HPLC with fluorescence (λ ex = 258 nm; λ em = 440 nm) or MS/MS analysis. The MISPE method was validated by UPLC–MS/MS for the determination of AOH and AME in tomato juice and sesame oil based on the European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. Method performance was satisfactory with recoveries from 92.5% to 106.2% and limits of quantification within the 1.1–2.8 µg kg −1 range in both samples.

Epitope tagging is widely used to fuse a known epitope to proteins for which no affinity receptor is available by using recombinant DNA technology. One example is FLAG epitope (DYKDDDDK), which provides better purity and recoveries than the favorite poly histidine tag. However, purification requires using anti-FLAG antibody resins, the high cost and nonreusability of which restrict widespread use. One cost-effective solution is provided by the use of bioinspired anti-FLAG molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). This work describes the development of MIPs, based on the epitope approach, synthesized from the tetrapeptide DYKD as template that affords purification of FLAG-derived recombinant proteins. Polymer was optimized by using a combinatorial approach to select the functional monomer(s) and cross-linker(s), resulting in the best specific affinity toward FLAG and the peptide DYKD. The imprinted resin obtained was used to purify mCherry proteins tagged with either FLAG or DYKD epitopes from crude cell lysates. Both mCherry variants were highly efficiently purified ( R ≥ 95%, RSD ≤ 15%, n = 3) and impurities were removed. Unlike existing antibody-based resins, the proposed tag-imprinting strategy provides a general method for meeting the growing demand for efficient, inexpensive, and versatile materials for tagged proteins purification.

Tenuazonic acid (TeA) is a common mycotoxin produced by Alternaria species found in various foodstuffs. Herein, we describe the preparation of porous molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) microspheres doped with Eu(III), for selective fast analysis of TeA in rice extracts. The TeA template, bearing a β-diketone moiety, is a good Eu(III)-chelating antenna ligand that can be selectively captured in the MIP cavities and detected by observing the “turned-on” sensitized luminescence of the Eu(III) ions at 615 nm (λex 337 nm). A MIP library was prepared at small scale using diethyl allylmalonate (DEAM) or allyl acetoacetate as functional monomers, mixed in different mole ratios with the template and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EDMA) as cross-linker. The screening allowed selection of poly(DEAM-co-EDMA) with Eu(III) as luminogenic metal center for the sensor development. Under the optimized conditions, a linear response to TeA in the 1.7–20 μg mL−1 range, with a detection limit of 0.5 μg mL−1, was obtained. The Eu(III)-doped MIP for TeA showed very little or no cross-recognition of other mycotoxins present in foodstuff such as alternariol, β-zearalenol and cyclopiazonic acid, even containing the same recognition moiety. The MIP-based optosensor was successfully applied to the analysis of rice extracts spiked with TeA, and the results were confirmed by HPLC-DAD.

In this work, we report the synthesis of novel magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (m-MIPs) and their application to the selective extraction of the mycotoxin citrinin (CIT) from food samples. The polymers were prepared by surface imprinting of Fe3O4 nanoparticles, using 2-naphtholic acid (2-NA) as template molecule, N-3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl-N'-4-vinylphenyl urea and methacrylamide as functional monomers and ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate as cross-linker. The resulting material was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies (FT-IR). The polymers were used to develop a solid-phase extraction method (m-MISPE) for the selective recovery of CIT from rice extracts prior to its determination by HPLC with UV diode array detection. The method involves ultrasound-assisted extraction of the mycotoxin from rice samples with (7:3, v/v) methanol/water, followed by sample cleanup and preconcentration with m-MIP. The extraction (washing and elution) conditions were optimized and their optimal values found to provide CIT recoveries of 94-98 % with relative standard deviations (RSD) less than 3.4 % (n = 3) for preconcentrated sample extracts (5 mL) fortified with the analyte at concentrations over the range 25-100 μg kg(-1). Based on the results, the application of the m-MIPs facilitates the accurate and efficient determination of CIT in rice extracts.

This work describes the development and application of class-selective molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for the analysis of beta-lactamase-resistant penicillins, namely cloxacillin (CLOXA), oxacillin (OXA), and dicloxacillin (DICLOXA), in milk samples. Our method is based on molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode-array detection (DAD). 2-Biphenylylpenicillin (2BPEN), a surrogate with a close resemblance to beta-lactamase-resistant penicillins in terms of size, shape, hydrophobicity, and functionality, was synthesized and used as the template for the polymer synthesis. A MIP library was prepared and screened to select the optimum functional monomer, N-(2-aminoethyl)methacrylamide, and cross-linker, trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate, that provided the best recognition for the target antibiotics. For the MISPE application, the MIPs were prepared in the form of microspheres, using porous silica beads (40-75 μm) as sacrificial scaffolds. The developed MISPE method enables efficient extraction from aqueous samples and analysis of the antimicrobials, when followed by a selective washing with 2 mL acetonitrile-water (20:80 v/v) and elution with 1 mL 0.05 mol L(-1) tetrabutylammonium in methanol. The analytical method was validated according to EU guideline 2002/657/EC. The limits of quantification (S/N = 10) were in the 5.3-6.3 μg kg(-1) range, well below the maximum residue limits (MRLs) currently established. Inter-day mean recoveries were in the range 99-102 % with RSDs below 9 %, improving on the performance of previously reported MISPE methods for the analysis of CLOXA, OXA, or DICLOXA in milk samples.

This paper describes the synthesis of novel molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), prepared by a noncovalent imprinting approach, for cleanup and preconcentration of curcumin (CUR) and bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDMC) from medicinal herbal extracts and further analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Two molecular mimics, a mixture of reduced BDMCs and 4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone (HPB), have been synthesized and applied as templates for MIP synthesis. The polymers were prepared using N-(2-aminoethyl) methacrylamide (EAMA) as functional monomer, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EDMA) as the cross-linker (in a 1:5 molar ratio), and a mixture of acetonitrile/dimethylsulfoxide (90 %, v/v) as porogen. MIPs prepared using a mixture of reduced BDMCs as template showed higher selectivity for CUR and BDMC than those obtained with HPB, with imprinting factors of 3.5 and 2.7 for CUR and BDMC, respectively, using H2O/acetonitrile (65:35, v/v) as mobile phase. The adsorption isotherms for CUR in the MIP and the nonimprinted polymer (NIP) were fitted to the Freundlich isotherm model, and the calculated average binding affinities for CUR were (17 ± 2) and (8 ± 1) mM−1 for the MIP and the NIP, respectively. The polymers were packed into solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges, and the optimized molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE-HPLC) with fluorescence detection (FLD) method allowed the extraction of both curcuminoids from aqueous samples (50 mM NH4Ac, pH 8.8) followed by a selective washing with acetonitrile/NH4Ac, 50 mM at pH 8.8 (30:70 %, v/v), and elution with 3 × 1 mL of MeOH. Good recoveries and precision ranging between 87 and 92 %, with relative standard deviation (RSD) of

This paper describes the synthesis of novel molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) micro-beads for the selective extraction (MISPE) of six fluoroquinolone (FQ) antibiotics (enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, lomefloxacin, danofloxacin, sarafloxacin and norfloxacin) from chicken muscle samples and further analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence (FLD) or mass spectrometry (MS) detection. A combinatorial screening approach has been applied to select the optimal functional monomer and cross-linker formulation for polymer synthesis. The MIP prepared using enoxacin (ENOX) as the template - a mixture of methacrylic acid (MAA) and trifluoromethacrylic acid (TFMAA) as functional monomers and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EDMA) as the cross-linker - showed superior FQ recognition properties than the rest of the materials generated. MIP spherical particles were prepared using silica beads as sacrificial scaffolds. The polymers were packed in solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridges. The optimized MISPE-HPLC method allows the extraction of the antimicrobials from aqueous samples followed by a selective washing with acetonitrile/water (0.005% TFA, pH=3.0), 20:80 (v/v) and elution with 5% trifluoroacetic acid in methanol. Optimum MISPE conditions led to recoveries of the target FQs in chicken muscle samples ranging between 68 and 102% and precisions in the 3-4% range (RSD, n=18). The method has been validated according to European Union Decision 2002/657/EC, in terms of linearity, accuracy, precision, selectivity, decision limit (CCα) and detection capability (CCβ) by HPLC-FLD and HPLC-MS/MS. The limits of detection were improved using HPLC-MS/MS analysis and ranged between 0.2 and 2.7μgkg(-1) (S/N=3) for all the FQs tested.

This paper reports a sensitive, highly selective flow injection (FI) method for the chemiluminescence-based determination of enrofloxacin (ENRO), a fluoroquinolone (FQ) antibiotic, in natural water samples. The detection principle is the on-line monitored photoreaction of tris(1,10-phenantroline)ruthenium(II) [Ru(phen)32 +] with peroxydisulphate ion to give Ru(phen)33 +, which is then reduced by the antimicrobial producing the chemiluminescence (CL) signal. The low selectivity of the CL reaction required using solid-phase extraction with molecularly imprinted polymers (MISPE) in combination with the FI-CL system. Fluoroquinolone-selective MIP beads were obtained by acid etching of silica/MIP composites and packed into SPE cartridges to clean-up and preconcentrate samples prior injection into the FI-CL system. Various parameters influencing the CL signal intensity including pH, flow rate, and Ru(phen)32 + and peroxydisulphate concentrations, were optimized. The variables affecting the extraction efficiency of the polymers were also optimized in order to minimize non-specific interactions and enable the selective uptake of the antibiotics from real samples. CL measurements made over the pH range 3.8–4.2 allowed the selective determination of enrofloxacin, and measurements at pH 4.8–5.8 the quantitation of total FQs (enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, sarafloxacin, lomefloxacin and danofloxacin). The limit of detection for enrofloxacin was 0.27 μg L− 1 when 10 mL water samples were preconcentrates. The proposed method was used to determine trace amounts of FQs in mineral and tap water, and also in water samples from the river Quibu (Cuba), all with good recoveries: 84–119% (RSD 2.1–9.3%, n = 3) for samples fortified with enrofloxacin at concentrations from 4 to 40 μg L− 1. The method was validated by HPLC with fluorescence detection.

This work reports the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) selective to cephalosporin (CF) antibiotics, and their application as molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) sorbents for the determination of these antimicrobials in milk samples. Several functional monomers and cross-linkers have been screened to select the best combination that provides high selectivity for the simultaneous multiresidue extraction of cefthiofur (THIO), cefazolin (AZO), cefquinome (QUI), cephapirin (API), cephalexin (ALE) and cephalonium (ALO) from the samples. The novel MIPs were prepared by a non-covalent imprinting approach in the form of spherical microparticles using the synthetic surrogate molecule sodium 7-(2-biphenylylcarboxamido)-3-methyl-3-cepheme-4-carboxylate, N-3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl-N'-4-vinylphenyl urea (VPU) as functional monomer, and divinylbenzene (DVB) as crosslinking agent in a 1:2:20 molar ratio. The optimized MISPE method allowed the extraction of the target antimicrobials from raw cow milk samples using a selective washing with 5mL methanol/2-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) buffer (0.1M, pH 7.5) (2:98, v/v) to remove the non-specifically retained compounds, followed by elution with 1mL of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in methanol (0.1:99.9, v/v). The extracts have been analysed by UHPLC-MS/MS and the analytical method has been validated according to EU guideline 2002/657/EC. The limits of quantification (S/N=10) were in the 1.7-12.5μgkg-1 range, well below the maximum residue limits (MRLs) currently established for the quantified cephalosporins in milk samples. The developed MIP allows mutiresidual determination of the six cephalosporin antibiotics mentioned above, significantly broadening the application to food analysis of MISPE methods.

Molecular imprinted polymers (MIPs) are molecular recognition elements that can be tailored towards a wide variety of target molecules. These human-made materials are relatively easy to prepare and have found a broad application as substitutes of antibodies or enzymes. They have been successfully applied to the development of chromatographic or solid phase extraction methods and have attracted a great interest for the development of electrochemical, piezoelectrical or optical sensors. In parallel with the classification of biosensors, MIP-based devices can work according to two different detection schemes: affinity sensors (“plastic-bodies”) and catalytic sensors (“plastic-enzymes”). These devices can be interrogated using different optical techniques, such as fluorescence, light absorption (UV-Vis, Infrared) spectroscopy, chemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance, or Raman scattering. This paper reviews the main developments and applications of MIPs in the area of optical sensors with special emphasis on their analytical applications.

A novel and simple method for the selective cleanup and preconcentration of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in environmental water samples has been developed using molecularly imprinted polymer solid-phase extraction (MISPE). The molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) has been prepared using enrofloxacin (ENR) as the template and a stoichiometric quantity of urea-based functional monomer to target the single oxyanionic moieties in the template molecule. The selectivity of the material for enrofloxacin, and structurally related and non-related compounds, has been evaluated using it as stationary phase in liquid chromatography. The novel polymer and the corresponding non-imprinted material (NIP) have been characterised using nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms and scanning electron microscopy. Various parameters affecting the extraction efficiency of the materials in the MISPE procedure were evaluated in order to achieve optimal preconcentration and to reduce non-specific interactions. The optimized MISPE/HPLC with fluorescence detection (FLD) method allows direct extraction of the antibiotics from the aqueous samples followed by a selective washing with acetonitrile/water (0.1M 2-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) buffer, pH 7.5) (10/90, v/v) and elution with 2% trifluoracetic acid in methanol. Good recoveries and precision, ranging between 66 and 100% (RSD: 2-12%, n=3) for danofloxacin, enrofloxacin, oxolinic acid and flumequine, and moderate recoveries (15-40%, RSD 4-9%, n=3) for norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, lomefloxacin and sarafloxacin, have been obtained for river water samples fortified with 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0microgL(-1) of all the antibiotics. The method detection limits ranged between 0.01 and 0.30microgL(-1) for all the antibiotics tested, when 100mL water samples were processed. The results demonstrate the applicability of the optimized method for the selective extraction of fluoroquinolones in environmental water samples at the ngL(-1) level.

A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-based optode has been developed for zearalenone (ZON) mycotoxin analysis. The automated flow-through assay is based on the displacement of tailor-made highly fluorescent tracers by the analyte from a MIP prepared by UV irradiation of a mixture of cyclododecyl 2,4-dihydroxybenzoate (template, ZON mimic), 1-allyl piperazine (functional monomer), trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (crosslinker) and 2,2′-azobisisobutyronitrile in acetonitrile (porogen). Three fluorescent analogues of ZON, namely 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid 2-[methyl(7-nitro-benzo[1,2,5]oxadiazol-4-yl)amino]ethyl ester (NBDRA), 2,4-dihydroxy- N -pyren-1-ylmethylbenzamide (PMRA) and of 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid 2-[(pyrene-l-carbonyl)amino] ethyl ester (PARA), have been molecularly engineered for the assay development. The pyrene-containing tracers also inform on the characteristics of the microenvironment of the MIP binding sites. PARA has been finally selected to optimize the ZON displacement fluorosensor, that shows a limit of detection of 2.5 × 10 −5 M in acetonitrile. A positive cross-reactivity has been found for β-zearalenol, but not for resorcinol, resorcylic acid, 17β-estradiol, estrone or bisphenol-A.

Molecularly imprinted porous polymer microspheres have been prepared for selective binding of alternariol (AOH), a phenolic mycotoxin produced by Alternaria fungi. In order to lead the synthesis of recognition materials, four original AOH surrogates have been designed, prepared and characterized. They bear different number of phenol groups in various positions and different degree of O-methylation on the dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one skeleton. A comprehensive library of mixtures of basic, acidic or neutral monomers, with divinylbenzene or ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate as cross-linkers, were polymerized at a small scale in the presence of the four molecular mimics of the toxin molecule. This polymer screening has allowed selection of the optimal composition of the microbeads (N-(2-aminoethyl)methacrylamide, EAMA, and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate). The latter are able to bind AOH in water-acetonitrile (80:20, v/v) with an affinity constant of 109±10mM(-1) and a total number of binding sites of 35±2μmolg(-1), being alternariol monomethylether the only competitor species. Moreover, (1)H NMR titrations have unveiled a 1:2 surrogate-to-EAMA stoichiometry, the exact interaction sites and a binding constant of 1.5×10(4)M(-2). A molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction (MISPE) method has been optimized for selective isolation of the mycotoxin from aqueous samples upon a discriminating wash with 3mL of acetonitrile/water (20:80, v/v) followed by determination by HPLC with fluorescence detection. The method has been applied, in combination to ultrasound-assisted extraction, to the analysis of AOH in tomato samples fortified with the mycotoxin at five concentration levels (33-110μgkg(-1)), with recoveries in the range of 81-103% (RSD n=6). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first imprinted material capable of molecularly recognizing this widespread food contaminant.

[EN] Sub-wavelength diameter holes in thin metal layers can exhibit remarkable optical features that make them highly suitable for (bio)sensing applications. Either as efficient light scattering centers for surface plasmon excitation or metal-clad optical waveguides, they are able to form strongly localized optical fields that can effectively interact with biomolecules and/or nanoparticles on the nanoscale. As the metal of choice, aluminum exhibits good optical and electrical properties, is easy to manufacture and process and, unlike gold and silver, its low cost makes it very promising for commercial applications. However, aluminum has been scarcely used for biosensing purposes due to corrosion and pitting issues. In this short review, we show our recent achievements on aluminum nanohole platforms for (bio)sensing. These include a method to circumvent aluminum degradation-which has been successfully applied to the demonstration of aluminum nanohole array (NHA) immunosensors based on both, glass and polycarbonate compact discs supports-the use of aluminum nanoholes operating as optical waveguides for synthesizing submicron-sized molecularly imprinted polymers by local photopolymerization, and a technique for fabricating transferable aluminum NHAs onto flexible pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes, which could facilitate the development of a wearable technology based on aluminum NHAs., The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from MINECO projects, Spain (TEC2012-31145, CTQ2012-37573-C02 and CTQ 2013-45875-R).

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) with selective recognition properties for zearalenone (ZON), an estrogenic mycotoxin, and structurally related compounds have been prepared using the non-covalent imprinting approach. A rationally designed ZON analogue, cyclododecyl 2,4-dihydroxybenzoate (CDHB), that exhibits resemblance to ZON in terms of size, shape and functionality has been synthesized and used as template for MIP preparation instead of the natural toxin. Several functional monomers have been evaluated to maximize the interactions with the template molecule during the polymerization process. The polymer material prepared with 1-allylpiperazine (1-ALPP) as functional monomer, trimethyl trimethacrylate (TRIM) as cross-linker and acetonitrile as porogen (in a 1:4:20 molar ratio) displayed superior binding capacities than any other of the MIPs tested. Selectivity of this material for ZON and structurally related and non-related compounds has been evaluated using it as stationary phase in liquid chromatography. Our results demonstrate that the imprinted polymer shows significant affinity in the porogenic solvent for the template mimic (CDHB) as well as for the ZON and other related target metabolites in food samples, dramatically improving the performance of previously reported MIPs for ZON recognition. Therefore, MIPs can be an excellent alternative for clean-up and preconcentration of the mycotoxin in contaminated food samples.

The first demonstration of fabrication of submicron lateral resolution molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) patterns by photoinduced local polymerization within metal subwavelength apertures is reported. The size of the photopolymerized MIP features is finely tuned by the dose of 532 nm radiation. Rhodamine 123 (R123) has been selected as a fluorescent model template to prove the recognition capability of the MIP nanostructures, which has been evaluated by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) with single photon timing measurements. The binding selectivity provided by the imprinting effect has been confirmed in the presence of compounds structurally related to R123. These results pave the way to the development of nanomaterial architectures with biomimetic artificial recognition properties for environmental, clinical and food testing.

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) for the selective recognition properties of curcumin (CUR), a cancer chemopreventive agent were obtained by a non-covalent imprinting approach with bisdemetoxycurcumin (BDMC) as the template molecule. The double bond of BDMC has been reduced in order not to be involved in polymerization and make the template molecules easy to be eluted. Several functional monomers have been evaluated to maximize the interactions with the template molecule during polymerization. MIPs prepared by bulk of N-(2-aminoethyl) metacrylamid hydrochlorideas functional monomer, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate as crosslinker, 2,2′-azobis (2′4-dimethyl valeronitril) as initiator and acetonitrile as porogen. Non-imprinted polymer (NIP) have been also synthesized for reference purposes. UV-vis spectroscopy has been used to predict the template to functional monomer ratio which indicates the formation of 2:1 complexes between monomer and curcumin and the association constants (K11 = 2529 μM and K12 = 1960.75 μM in acetonitrile). The capacity and imprinting factor have been evaluated as stationary phases in high-pressure liquid chromatography to CUR and BDMC. The binding properties and the homogeneity of the binding sites of the different polymers have been studied by Freundlich isotherm modeling and weight average affinity and number of binding sites. One of the foremost applications of molecular imprinting has been in molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction and it has the ability to separate and preconcentrate between closely related compounds in curcuminoids.

Biomimetic assays with molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are bound to be an alternative to the traditional immuno-analytical methods based on antibodies. This is due to the unique combination of advantages displayed by the artificial materials including the absence of animal inoculation and sacrifice, unnecessary hapten conjugation to a carrier protein for stimulated production, the possibility of manufacturing MIPs against toxic substances, excellent physicochemical stability, reusability, ease of storage, and recognition in organic media. If the selectivity and affinity of MIPs are increased, many more immuno-like assays will be developed using radioactive, enzymatic, colorimetric, fluorescent, chemiluminescent, or electrochemical interrogation methods. This chapter provides a comprehensive comparison between the bio- and biomimetic entities and their usage.

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for zearalenone analysis have been synthesized using the template mimics cyclododecyl 2,4-dihydroxybenzoate (CDHB), resorcinol and resorcylic acid. The MIPs are photochemically prepared from 2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (2-DAEM), 4-vinylpyridine (VIPY), 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) or 1-allylpiperazine (1-ALPP) as the functional monomers, trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TRIM) as cross-linker, azobis(isobutyronitrile) as initiator and acetonitrile as porogen. Non-imprinted polymers have been also synthesized for reference purposes. The textural properties of the novel polymers (BET areas, pore volumes and pore size distributions) have been determined from nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms. These parameters have shown to be strongly dependent on the presence of the template and the monomer nature. Scanning electron microscopy and solvent uptake experiments support these findings. Microporosity contributes less than 7% to the total pore volume for all the polymers prepared. Interestingly, a 3.5 nm pore opening is observed for all the polymers and additional pore apertures in the 20-40 nm region for VIPY-, HEMA- and 2-DAEM-based MIPs whereas a much wider opening size distribution has been measured for the 1-ALPP-based MIP. Molecular modeling and, particularly, (1)H NMR experiments demonstrate the strong (2:1) complex formed between 1-ALPP and the diphenolic CDHB (K(11)=4.7 x 10(4)M(-1) and K(12) = 2.6 x 10(2)M(-1) in acetonitrile) that make the corresponding MIP the most suitable for zearalenone recognition in real samples.

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), human-made polymers capable of recognizing a particular molecule in the presence of others due to the selective cavities of the material, have been successfully applied to the development of chromatographic and solid phase extraction methods. They have also been applied to the development of electrochemical, piezoelectrical and optical sensors. In parallel with the classification of biosensors, MIP-based devices can work according to two different detection schemes: (1) affinity sensors ("plastic-bodies") and, (2) catalytic sensors ("plastic-enzymes"). In the first case the change in a characteristic optical property, most frequently fluorescence, of the analyte or of the polymer is monitored, upon their mutual interaction. Alternatively, a fluorescent analogue of the target analyte can also be used to develop sensors based on competitive assays (MIAs). Optimization of the polymer composition and, in particular, a proper choice of the nature of the functional monomers involved in the polymerization process, is critical to prepare materials able to selectively interact with the analyte in aqueous media and with the fast kinetics required for analytical applications. Moreover, a rational design of fluorescent analogues of non-naturally fluorescent templates or of fluorescent monomers able to change its property upon interaction with the analyte, is also a bottle neck for wide application of this recognition elements in optical sensing. In this paper we present several approaches to address these issues namely the optimization of MIP composition and the design and synthesis of novel fluorophores for the analysis of antibiotics and mycotoxins in real samples.

An automated molecularly imprinted sorbent based assay (MIA) for the rapid and sensitive analysis of penicillin-type beta-lactam antibiotics (BLAs) has been developed and optimized. The polymers were prepared using penicillin G procaine salt as template (PENGp) and a stoichiometric quantity of a urea-based functional monomer to target the single oxyanionic species in the template molecule. Highly fluorescent competitors (emission quantum yields of 0.4-0.95), molecularly engineered to contain pyrene labels while keeping intact the 6-aminopenicillanic acid moiety for efficient recognition by the cross-linked polymers, have been tested as analyte analogues in the competitive assay. Pyrenemethylacetamido penicillanic acid (PAAP) was the tagged antibiotic providing for the highest selectivity when competing with PenG for the specific binding sites in the molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP). Upon desorption from the MIP, the emission signal generated by the PAAP was related to the antibiotic concentration in the sample. The 50% binding inhibition concentration of penicillin G standard curves was at 1.81 x 10(-6) M PENG, and the detection limit was 1.97 x 10(-7) M. The sensor showed a dynamic range (normalized signal in the 20 to 80% range) from 6.80 x 10(-7) to 7.21 x 10(-6) M (20-80% binding inhibition) PENG in acetonitrile:HEPES buffer 0.1 M at pH 7.5 (40:60, v/v) solutions. Competitive binding studies demonstrated various degrees of cross-reactivity with penicillin-type beta-lactam antibiotics such as ampicillin (71%), oxacillin (66%), penicillin V (56%), amoxicillin (13%), and nafcillin (46%) and a lower response to other isoxazolyl penicillins such as cloxacillin (27%) and dicloxacillin (16%). The total analysis time was 14 min per determination, and the MIP reactor could be reused for more than 150 cycles without significant loss of recognition. The automatic MIA has been successfully applied to the direct analysis of penicillin G in spiked urine samples with excellent recoveries (mean value 92%). Results displayed by comparative analysis of the optimized MIA with a chromatographic procedure for penicillin G showed excellent agreement between both methods.

A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) prepared using penicillin G procaine salt as the template (PENGp) and a stoichiometric quantity of urea-based functional monomer to target the single oxyanionic species in the template molecule has been applied to the development of a molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) procedure for the selective preconcentration of beta-lactam antibiotics (BLAs) from environmental water samples. Various parameters affecting the extraction efficiency of the polymer have been evaluated to achieve the selective preconcentration of the antibiotics from aqueous samples and to reduce nonspecific interactions. This resulted in an MISPE-HPLC method allowing the direct extraction of the analytes from the sample matrix with a selective wash using just 10% (v/v) organic solvent. On the basis of UV detection only, the method showed good recoveries and precision, ranging between 93% and 100% (RSD 3.8-8.9%, n = 3) for tap water and between 90% and 100% (RSD 4.2-9.1%, n = 3) for river water fortified with 30 or 60 microg L-1 (50 mL samples) penicillin G, penicillin V, nafcillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, and dicloxacillin, suggesting that this MIP can be successfully applied to the direct preconcentration of BLAs in environmental water samples.

A molecularly imprinted polymer prepared using 1-allylpiperazine (1-ALPP) as the functional monomer, trimethyltrimethacrylate (TRIM) as the crosslinker and the zearalenone (ZON)-mimicking template cyclododecanyl-2,4-dihydroxybenzoate (CDHB) has been applied to the clean-up and preconcentration of this mycotoxin (zearalenone) and a related metabolite, α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), from cereal and swine feed sample extracts. The extraction of ZON and α-ZOL from the food samples was accomplished using pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) with MeOH/ACN (50:50, v/v) as the extraction solvent, at 50 °C and 1500 psi. The extracted samples were cleaned up and preconcentrated through the MIP cartridge and analyzed using HPLC with fluorescence detection (λ exc=271/ λ em=452 nm). The stationary phase was a polar endcapped C18 column, and ACN/MeOH/water 10/55/35 (v/v/v, 15 mM ammonium acetate) at a flow rate of 1.0 mL min−1 was used as the mobile phase. The method was applied to the analysis of ZON and α-ZOL in wheat, corn, barley, rye, rice and swine feed samples fortified with 50, 100 and 400 ng g−1 of both mycotoxins, and it gave recoveries of between 85 and 97% (RSD 2.1–6.7%, n=3) and 87–97% (RSD 2.3–5.6%, n=3) for α-ZOL and ZON, respectively. The method was validated using a corn reference material for ZON.