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Background: Locomotor and object control skills are considered essential skills for children to learn due to their potential impact in aiding in future health-enhancing physical activity. Evidence indicates that out-of-school time programs (OST) can provide meaningful movement opportunities for children. It has been found that leaders of OST programs are not equipped with the proper training to improve children's motor skills. The purpose of this study was to gather expert consensus on the essential motor skills that should be practiced and evidence-based activities that should be integrated during OST programming. Methods: A three-round Delphi method was used to establish expert consensus on essential motor skills that children (5–10 years of age) should practice and evidence-based activities that should be integrated during OST programming to enhance child motor skill development. Results: Seven experts completed three rounds, and consensus was established (>70% agreement). Five essential motor skills were identified: overhand throwing, kicking, catching, jumping, and striking. Six evidence-based activities were agreed upon: team sport play, racket sports, swimming, resistance training, jogging/walking, and game-based approaches. Conclusion: Results from this study provide specific motor skills and evidence-based activities that program leaders could integrate during OST programming to enhance child motor skill development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Activity breaks are an established way physical activity may be incorporated into the preschool day. The purpose of this study was to examine what factors influenced moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during a teacher-implemented classroom-based activity break (CBAB) in a Head Start population. Methods: Ten-minute CBAB was conducted over 2 days in a quasi-experimental design; 99 preschoolers (mean age 3.80 [0.65] y; 49.5% male) from a convenience sample participated. Accelerometers measured MVPA, fundamental motor skill competency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development—second edition, and weight classification status used body mass index percentiles. Results: A significant, moderate regression was found (r =.328, P =.001) between fundamental motor skill and MVPA. There was no significant correlation between body mass index percentile and MVPA during the CBAB. In addition, the locomotor subscale was the best predictor for MVPA for children during the CBAB (r =.32, β = 0.82, P <.001). Conclusions: CBAB equally elicited MVPA for normal and overweight preschoolers. Fundamental motor skill competency was associated with MVPA during the CBAB; in particular, locomotor skills were the best predictor for physical activity. Structured activity opportunities that focus on locomotor skills may be a useful integration to prompt more MVPA in a preschool-age population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examined relationships between qualitative (developmental sequences) and quantitative (time) performance in rising from a supine position in early childhood. One hundred twenty two children ranging in age from 3 to 5 years were videotaped for five trials of rising from a supine position. Children's performance on the supine-to-stand (STS) task was quite variable in terms of both qualitative movement patterns and time (mean = 2.37 s, SD =.60). Results: Component sequences were moderately to strongly correlated with each other (r =.387 to.791). Upper-extremity (r = –.383) and axial (r = –.416) component levels also were inversely correlated with STS time. Results indicated a strong coordinative link between the development of trunk control (i.e., axial movement) and upper-extremity movement levels (r =.791), and together they demonstrated the strongest impact on the ability to rise quickly. These data provide important information relating to a child's motor development that may have clinical relevance for diagnosis. It provides also a greater understanding on how to improve performance on this task. Future research should examine qualitative and quantitative aspects of STS performance to understand its predictive utility as a lifespan assessment of motor competence and its potential importance as a measure to predict healthrelated variables and functional capability across the lifespan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceived motor competence (PMC) is a psychological construct that may be influenced by various environmental factors. This study aimed to analyze differences in PMC of children from four diverse countries. The sample was comprised of 231 Brazilian, 129 Australian, 140 Portuguese, and 114 American children, aged 5–8 years. The PMC was assessed using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children. Differences in PMC among countries were verified using Kruskal-Wallis tests, separately by age and gender. For girls (from the age of six), differences were found in the leap, slide, hit, and catch, as well as the sum of object control skills and total score. For boys, differences were found among countries in the gallop, jump, slide, hit, catch, and roll, as well as the sum of locomotor and object control skills, and the total skill score. Overall, American children seem to perceive themselves more competent compared to children from other countries. Leisure and sport activities in each country may influence the construction of PMC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This feasibility study compared the effects of 2 movement programs, traditional and mastery climate (i.e., the Children's Health Activity Motor Program [CHAMP]), on lesson context and children's physical activity (PA) levels. A secondary aim was to examine sex differences in PA levels in both programs.Method: Seventy-two preschoolers served as participants and were assigned to a movement program. Physical activity levels and lesson context were assessed with the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time.Results: Preschoolers in CHAMP spent more time walking (p < .05, d = 3.3), more time in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA; p < .05, d = 3.6), and less time standing (p < .05, d = 3.8) compared with those in a traditional movement program. Boys in both programs spent less time standing (p < .05, d = 4.8) and more time in vigorous activity (p < .05, d = 5.8) and MVPA (p < .05, d = 4.4) compared with girls. During CHAMP, children spent less time engaged in management and knowledge (p < .05, d = 1.4, and p < .001, d = 0.9, respectively) and more time in skill practice (p < .05, d = 1.5).Conclusion: The findings support that participation in CHAMP elicits more MVPA in preschool-age children compared with a traditional movement program. The Children's Health Activity Motor Program provided children with more class time devoted to skill practice. The program appears to be an innovative approach that is beneficial for PA engagement and could contribute positively to children's health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study examined the effects of three different treatment doses of a motor skill intervention (the Children's Health Activity Motor Program [CHAMP]) on changes in preschooler's motor performance. Methods: Onehundred and nine children were divided into one of four groups: control and three CHAMP dosage groups: T1, 660 min; T2, 720 min; or T3, 900 min. Motor performance was assessed before and after the intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd Edition (TGMD-2). We used a 2 (time) x 4 (treatment) mixed-measures ANOVA to determine interaction and main effects. Significant interactions were decomposed using separate one-way between groups ANOVAs at each time point followed by Tukey's post hoc tests. Results: Results revealed a significant time x treatment interaction (F3, 100 = 16.79; p < .001). There were no differences across treatment groups before the intervention (F3, 100 = .075, p < .90), but after the intervention the control group had significantly lower TMGD-2 scores compared with all three CHAMP intervention groups (F3, 100 = 9.92, p < .001, all post hoc tests, p < .001). Posttreatment differences can be attributed to greater improvements in motor performance following the CHAMP intervention regardless of specific dosage. Conclusions: Motor performance scores for all children who completed CHAMP significantly improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examined relationships between qualitative (developmental sequences) and quantitative (time) performance in rising from a supine position in early childhood. One hundred twenty two children ranging in age from 3 to 5 years were videotaped for five trials of rising from a supine position. Children's performance on the supine-to-stand (STS) task was quite variable in terms of both qualitative movement patterns and time (mean = 2.37 s, SD = .60). Results: Component sequences were moderately to strongly correlated with each other (r = .387 to .791). Upper-extremity (r = -.383) and axial (r = -.416) component levels also were inversely correlated with STS time. Results indicated a strong coordinative link between the development of trunk control (i.e., axial movement) and upperextremity movement levels (r = .791) and together they demonstrated the strongest impact on the ability to rise quickly. These data provide important information relating to a child's motor development that may have clinical relevance for diagnosis. It provides also a greater understanding on how to improve performance on this task. Future research should examine qualitative and quantitative aspects of STS performance to understand its predictive utility as a lifespan assessment of motor competence and its potential importance as a measure to predict healthrelated variables and functional capability across the lifespan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing children's perceptions of their movement abilities (i.e., perceived competence) is traditionally done using picture scales--Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Acceptance for Young Children or Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Pictures fail to capture the temporal components of movement. To address this limitation, we created a digital-based instrument to assess perceived motor competence: the Digital Scale of Perceived Motor Competence. The purpose of this study was to determine the validity, reliability, and internal consistency of the Digital-based Scale of Perceived Motor Skill Competence. The Digital-based Scale of Perceived Motor Skill Competence is based on the twelve fundamental motor skills from the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition with a similar layout and item structure as the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Face Validity of the instrument was examined in Phase I (n = 56; Mage = 8.6 ± 0.7 years, 26 girls). Test-retest reliability and internal consistency were assessed in Phase II (n = 54, Mage = 8.7 years ± 0.5 years, 26 girls). Intra-class correlations (ICC) and Cronbach's alpha were conducted to determine test-retest reliability and internal consistency for all twelve skills along with locomotor and object control subscales. The Digital Scale of Perceived Motor Competence demonstrates excellent test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.83, total; ICC = 0.77, locomotor; ICC = 0.79, object control) and acceptable/good internal consistency (α = 0.62, total; α = 0.57, locomotor; α = 0.49, object control). Findings provide evidence of the reliability of the three level digital-based instrument of perceived motor competence for older children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effect of demonstration conditions (multimedia and live) in school-age children on performance of the Test of Gross Motor Development--Second Edition (TGMD-2) locomotor and object control subscale raw scores, and participants' enjoyment in the preoperational and operational stages of cognitive development. Forty-five children ages 5-10 years were divided into two age groups: younger (n = 21, Mage = 5.95 years, SD = .80) and older (n = 24, Mage = 8.96 years, SD = .86). Children completed the TGMD-2 under two counterbalanced conditions: live and multimedia demonstration. Immediately following each testing condition, children ranked their enjoyment and completed a semistructured interview. Paired sample t tests examined motor skill and enjoyment differences in each age group. For both groups, no statistically significant differences were present for motor skill performance or participants' enjoyment between the two demonstration conditions (p ≥ .05). Overall, 44.5% of participants preferred the multimedia demonstration, while 32.5% preferred the live demonstration. Mixed responses were reported by 22.5% of participants. Within age groups, younger participants preferred the multimedia demonstration more than older participants (multimedia = 50%, 41%; live = 23%, 41%, respectively). This study provides evidence that multimedia demonstration may be suitable for administration of the TGMD-2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this review is to synthesize the evidence of the relationship between fundamental motor skills (FMS) competence and physical activity by qualitatively describing results from 13 studies that met rigorous inclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria: (a) published in a peer-review journal, (b) participants were between the ages of 3–18, (c) participants were typically developing, (d) FMS was measured by a process-oriented assessment, (e) assessed physical activity, (f) related FMS and physical activity through statistical procedures, and (g) printed in English. Databases were searched for relevant articles using key terms related to FMS and physical activity. Evidence suggested low to moderate relationships between FMS competence and physical activity in early childhood (r = .16 to .48; R2 = 3–23%, 4 studies), low to high relationships in middle to late childhood (r = .24 to .55; R2 = 6–30%, 7 studies), and low to moderate relationships in adolescence (r = .14 to .35; R2 = 2–12.3%, 2 studies). Across ages, object control skills and locomotor skills were more strongly related to physical activity for boys and girls, respectively. Future research should emphasize experimental and longitudinal research designs to provide further understanding of the relationship between FMS competence and physical activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We compared children with, at-risk for, or without developmental coordination disorder (DCD) on the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC) through (a) correlations, (b) gender and age comparisons, (c) cross tab analyses, and (d) factor analyses. Method: Children (N= 424; age range: 4-10 years) from southern Brazil completed the TGMD-2 and MABC and placed into groups (DCD: ≤ 5th%, n = 58; at-risk: > 5th to < 15th%, n = 133; typically developing (TD) >16th%, n = 233). Results: The strongest correlation was between total performance on the TGMD-2 and MABC (r = .37). No gender differences were found for performance on the MABC while boys performed better than girls on the TGMD-2. Cross tab analyses indicated a high level of agreement for children who performed in the lowest percentiles on each assessment. Factor analyses suggested that, for both the TD and at-risk groups, three factors loaded on the motor assessments. In contrast, the DCD group loaded on a sport skill, general skill, and a manipulative skill factor, accounting for 42.3% of the variance. Conclusions: Evidence suggests that children who perform very poorly on one assessment are likely to perform poorly on the other. Children with DCD may have sports-related skill deficiencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theend-state comfort effecthas been observed in grip selections of adult humans and other species of primates, but few studies have explored this effect in young children. The present study investigated the effect of a visual cue on the sensitivity to exhibit end-state comfort. Preschool children (N = 17) completed the task of picking up an overturned cup, turning it right-side up, and pouring water into it. Each child performed three trials of this task in both visual cue and non-visual cue conditions. Results revealed no significant difference between the two visual cue conditions in using a thumb-down or end-state comfort grip,χ2(1) = 0.12,p > 0.05. The findings offer practical implications regarding young children's ability to plan movement along with the potential role of early learning centres in creating environments that promote motor planning. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Performance on the Test of Gross Motor Development (Second Edition; TGMD-2) by children with autism spectrum disorders improves when picture task cards were implemented into the assessment protocol [Breslin, C.M., & Rudisill, M.E. (2011). The effect of visual supports on performance of the TGMD-2 for children with autism spectrum disorder.Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly,28, 342–353]. This preliminary study sought to examine the effects of picture task cards on TGMD-2 performance by preschool-aged children without a diagnosed autism spectrum disorder. Participants (N = 10) completed the TGMD-2 under two counterbalanced conditions (traditional protocol and picture task card protocol) in random order. Mean gross motor quotient scores for the traditional protocol and picture task card protocols were 88.90 and 85.00, respectively. A paired samplest-test indicated that scores were significantly higher in the traditional protocol (t(9) = 2.899;η2 = 0.48,p = 0.018). Therefore, the use of picture task cards did not result in improved TGMD-2 performance. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examined the relationship among sex, body mass index, motor skill competence (MSC), perceived physical competence (PPC,), and school-day physical activity in preschool students (N = 34). Physical activity was assessed by steps accumulated during the school day, while MSC and PPC were assessed with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition (Ulrich, 2000) and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (Harter & Pike, 1984). Regression analyses revealed that preschool students' locomotor ability accounted for 21 % (p = .007) of the variance associated with school-day physical activity. The findings support an associatzon between participants' ability to locomote and be physically active. The findings warrant future investigations to examine the relationship between locomotor skills and physical activity behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children from poor, urban, and disadvantaged environments often demonstrate poor motor skill competence in both object control (OC) and locomotor skills (Goodway & Rudisill, 1996; Hamilton et al., 1999). This study examined the motor skill competence of disadvantaged, African American preschoolers. Further, it investigated the effects of a 9-week OC intervention on OC competence. Two instructional approaches were compared: low autonomy (LA) consisting of direct-instruction and a mastery motivational climate (MMC). Participants were randomly assigned to a LA (n = 36), MMC (n = 38), or comparison (no motor intervention) group (n = 39). The LA and MMC groups participated in 18 30-min OC sessions and the comparison group participated in the same amount of unstructured recess. All children were pre-and posttested on the OC subscale of the TGMD-2 (Ulrich, 2001). Preintervention OC competence was low based on percentile ranks (LA = 23%, MMC = 20%, comparison = 20%). A 3 (Group) x 2 (Sex) ANOVA on pre-OC scores revealed no significant group differences (p = .90) or Group x Sex interaction (p = .60). However, a significant sex main effect was found with boys having greater OC competence than girls, F(1, 107) = 29.34, p < .001. A 3 (Group) x 2 Time x 2 (Sex) ANOVA with repeated measures revealed a significant Group x Time interaction, F(2, 107) = 210.97, p < .001, indicating the OC intervention was effective. Post hoc Tukey HSD analysis reported the LA (p ≤ = < .001) and MMC (p ≤ = < .001) groups had significantly better OC competence than the Comparison group from pre- to postintervention. There was no difference between the LA and MMC groups (p = .88). A nonsignificant Group x Time x Sex interaction (p = .94) showed that there were no sex differences within groups from pre- to postintervention. Clearly, disadvantaged preschoolers had low OC competence and needed motor intervention. When instruction was provided by either LA or MMC, preschool children improved their OC skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]