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There is ample evidence that multimedia learning is challenging, and learners often underutilize appropriate cognitive processes. Previous research has applied prompts to promote the use of helpful cognitive processing. However, prompts still require learners to regulate their learning, which may interfere with learning, especially in situations where cognitive demands are already high. As an alternative, implementation intentions (i.e. if‐then plans) are expected to help regulate behaviour automatically due to their specific wording, thereby offloading demands. Accordingly, this study aimed at investigating whether implementation intentions compared with prompts improve learning performance, especially under high cognitive load. Students (N = 120) learned either in a control condition without instructional support, with prompts, or with implementation intentions. Within each condition, half of the participants studied the multimedia instruction under conditions of either high or low cognitive load, which was experimentally manipulated by instructing them to perform one of two secondary tasks. In line with our hypotheses, the results showed that under low cognitive load, both prompts and implementation intentions led to better learning than the control condition. By contrast, under high cognitive load, only implementation intentions promoted learning. Thus, implementation intentions are an efficient means to promote learning even under challenging circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the study was to develop an adaptive, gaze-contingent learning environment that would support learners in their information-processing behavior when learning from illustrated texts. To this end, three experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1 (N = 32) three groups of learners were identified based on differences in their eye movements obtained while they were learning with a non-adaptive multimedia learning environment. The group of learners who displayed longer fixations times and higher fixations counts on text and pictures as well as more text-picture transitions had better learning outcomes than a group with a less intense information-processing behavior. These findings were used to develop a gaze-contingent adaptive system. It analyzes learners' eye movements during learning in real time and - in case of poor information processing (i.e., behavior similar to that of the unsuccessful learner group in Experiment 1) - alters the presentation of the materials in a way that is expected to trigger a more adequate processing (e.g., by highlighting relations between text and pictures). In Experiment 2 (N = 79) and Experiment 3 (N = 62) the adaptive multimedia learning system was compared to a non-adaptive, static presentation of the same materials. Experiment 2 showed no differences between both learning systems in terms of learning outcome. In Experiment 3, where the thresholds for adaptive responses were slightly modified, the gaze-based adaptive system hindered learners with weaker cognitive prerequisites, but tended to support learners with stronger cognitive prerequisites. Possible reasons are discussed and future research directions suggested. • A gaze-contingent adaptive multimedia system was developed. • The system analyses gaze behavior in realtime and provides adaptive support. • Empirically determined thresholds were used to design the adaptation algorithm. • The adaptive system was not effective/harmful for weaker learners. • The adaptive system improved transfer for stronger learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It was investigated whether the beneficial effect of picture presentation might be influenced by the content conveyed through text and pictures and the way information is distributed between them. Ninety‐nine students learnt in five between‐subjects learning conditions (i.e., text with spatial contents plus pictures, text with visual contents plus pictures, only text with spatial contents, only text with visual contents, only picture) about a tourist centre and a holiday farm. Results showed that pictures (i.e., maps) were beneficial for learning if spatial knowledge had to be acquired, but did not support learning when non‐spatial, visual knowledge had to be acquired. Furthermore, a high overlap of spatial information in text and picture was helpful, which can be explained by the assumption that learning is a text‐guided process. On the other hand, regarding non‐spatial visual information, a high text‐picture overlap did not influence learning, probably because text alone was sufficient for acquiring visual knowledge. The implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information may hamper learning with multimedia. The present study examined whether people can learn to ignore unnecessary information with increasing experience with the task and whether this depends on the layout of that information. In two experiments, participants learned about the process of mitosis from a multimedia slideshow, with each slide presenting a combination of expository text and a picture on one of the stages in the process. Slides either contained no unnecessary text (control condition) or unnecessary text (i.e., merely describing the picture) either integrated in the picture (integrated condition) or presented underneath the picture (separated condition). Knowledge about the studied mitosis phase was tested immediately after each slide using a cloze test. Across Experiments 1 and 2, we did not find a reliable negative effect of the unnecessary text on cloze test performance. As a result, the question of whether task experience would reduce or eliminate that negative effect could not be answered. The eye movement data did confirm, however, that participants attended less to the unnecessary information with increasing task experience, suggesting that students can adapt their study strategy and learn to ignore unnecessary information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia integration signals highlight correspondences between text and pictures with the aim of supporting learning from multimedia. A recent meta-analysis revealed that only learners with low domain-specific prior knowledge benefit from multimedia integration signals. To more thoroughly investigate the influence of prior knowledge on the multimedia signaling effect in a more ecologically valid context, we conducted a quasi-experimental field study with 8th graders. They learned with a digital multimedia textbook in 1 of the 2 versions: (a) a basic version with signals that supported only the selection and organization of information from either text or pictures or (b) an extended version with additional multimedia integration signals to support the integration of information from text and pictures (e.g., color coding, deictic references). Results of a contrast analysis revealed that low-prior-knowledge learners learned better with the extended version compared with the basic version, whereas adding multimedia integration signals was detrimental for learning outcomes of high-prior-knowledge learners. This expertise reversal effect could only partially be explained by cognitive load measures, in that high-prior-knowledge learners had higher extraneous cognitive load in the condition with multimedia integration signals. The results suggest a need for a more individualized multimedia design that considers students' prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The reported study investigated the influence of longer text presentation on the modality and the redundancy effect. In particular, the auditory-recency-effect explanation, which predicts that both effects should disappear when longer texts are presented, was tested against the text-processing explanation, which predicts that both effects should even reverse if text-processing strategies can be applied. In Experiment 1, a 2×2 between-subject design with animation presentation (yes vs. no) and text modality (written vs. spoken) was used (N =81). In line with the auditory-recency-effect explanation text modality did not influence learning outcomes. Moreover, animations facilitated transfer performance due to reduced cognitive effort. In Experiment 2, a 2×3 between-subject design with pacing (system-paced vs. learner-paced) and text modality (written vs. spoken vs. written and spoken) was used (N =122). Again, text modality did not influence learning outcomes regardless of whether the learning environment was learner- or system-paced, supporting the auditory-recency-effect explanation. The analysis of log-files, however, indicated that learners within the learner-paced condition with written text replayed the single text segments more often; moreover, replaying segments was positively correlated with learning outcomes. Thus, processing written text more intensively was associated with better learning outcomes, which supports the text-processing explanation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The multimedia effect (ME) is a well-researched effect in the field of learning and instruction. In this article, two views that explain the ME are compared. The outcome-oriented view focuses on the beneficial effect of text and pictures on mental representations, whereas the process-oriented view focuses on the beneficial effect of text and pictures for information processing. To contrast these views, the ME sizes for different task types were compared (i.e., conceptual, causal, procedural tasks). Whereas the outcome-oriented view predicts no differences in ME size, the process-oriented view predicts that the ME is largest in causal tasks, smaller in procedural tasks, and smallest in conceptual tasks. Sixty-five students learnt with text only or with text and pictures. Task type and information source (i.e., whether the text, picture, or text and picture provided the answer to a post-test question) were varied within subjects. The results showed that, in line with the process-oriented view, the ME was smaller for conceptual tasks than for procedural tasks. Contrary to the expectations, the ME was larger in procedural tasks than in causal tasks. Moreover, the pattern of results varied with information source. Research and practical implications are described, so that pictures can be deployed optimally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The study examined whether the modality effect is caused by either high visuo-spatial load or a lack of temporal contiguity when processing written text and pictures. Students (N = 147) viewed pictures on the development of tornados, which were accompanied by either spoken or written explanations presented simultaneously with, before, or after the pictures. For verbal recall no modality effect was observed, whereas for transfer the influence of modality varied as a function of phonological working memory capacity. For pictorial recall the results showed a modality effect that was limited to simultaneous presentation, apparently in line with the temporal contiguity explanation. However, spoken simultaneous presentations were not superior to spoken sequential presentations, which contradicts the temporal contiguity explanation for the modality effect. Rather, it seems as if learners with simultaneous presentation of written text and picture concentrated more on the text and ignored the pictures, resulting in worse pictorial recall. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the reported experiment we investigated how spatial information conveyed in an expository text influenced multimedia learning. It was based on a 2×2-design with the degree of spatial information given in the text (high vs. low spatial text) and the presentation format (written text-only vs. written text+animation) as between-subjects factors. As dependent variables learning outcomes as well as self-reported cognitive load were assessed. The results revealed that there was a multimedia effect with regard to learning outcomes only for low spatial text, but not for high spatial text. Moreover, the cognitive load measures showed an overall multimedia effect irrespective of the degree of spatial information conveyed by the text (i.e., higher cognitive load ratings in the text-only conditions). These results can be explained as a special instance of the redundancy effect as well as a consequence of processing interference within visuo-spatial working memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current cognitive multimedia design theories provide several guidelines on how to integrate verbal and pictorial information. However, the recommendations for the design of auditory texts (narrations) are still fragmentary, especially with regard to the characteristics of the voices used. In the current paper, a fundamental question is addressed, namely, whether to use a male or a female speaker. In two experiments, learners studied dynamic visualizations on probability theory that were accompanied by narrations. The learner’s gender and the speaker’s gender served as between-subjects variables. In the first study, learners were randomly assigned to speakers of different gender. In the second study, learners could choose among different speakers. The results show that learners achieved better learning outcomes when the narration was presented by a female speaker rather than a male speaker irrespective of the learner’s gender (speaker/gender effect). Being given the choice, learners preferred female speakers, but this individual preference had no impact on learning outcomes. The results suggest augmenting purely cognitive approaches to multimedia design by social-motivational assumptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This special issue comprises a set of six papers, in which studies are presented that use eye tracking to analyse multimedia learning processes in detail. Most of the papers focus on the effects on visual attention of animations with different design features such as spoken vs. written text, different kinds of cues, or different presentation speeds. Two contributions concern effects of learner characteristics (prior knowledge) on visual attention when learning with video and complex graphics. In addition, in some papers eye tracking is not only used as a process measure in itself, but also as input for verbal reports (i.e., cued retrospective reporting). In the two commentaries, the contributions are discussed from a multimedia learning perspective and an eye tracking perspective, by prominent researchers in those fields. Together, the contributions to this issue give an overview of the various possibilities eye tracking opens up for research on multimedia learning and instruction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, two experiments on the use of hypermedia environments for learning about probability theory are reported. In Experiment 1a it was tested whether multimedia design principles (multimedia principle, modality principle, redundancy principle) are valid in hypermedia environments, despite the fact that hypermedia offers more learner control than multimedia. The results showed only little evidence for this validity, although the hypermedia environment entailed only a rather low level of learner control. In Experiment 1b it was investigated how learner control affects performance and how its possible impact is moderated by learners’ prior knowledge. A high level of learner control positively affected the effectiveness of instruction only with regard to intuitive knowledge, but was at the same time accompanied by large increases in learning time, thereby rendering the instruction inefficient. Unexpectedly, effects of learner control were not moderated by students’ prior knowledge. The results imply that the idea to use multimedia design principles for hypermedia learning is too simple and that the benefits and drawbacks of learner control depend heavily on learning objectives and time constraints. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract We investigated to what extent the effectiveness of Eye Movement Modeling Examples (EMME) is influenced by social cues such as model-observer similarity. In an eye tracking experiment with university students (N = 119), EMME were used to display multimedia-processing strategies as expressed in the eye movements of an instructed model. The model was either introduced as a successful learner (competent model), as another participant (peer model) or no EMME were presented (control group). Results indicated that only learners with lower domain knowledge benefitted from EMME, but only when model-observer similarity was experienced as high (i.e., when receiving EMME with a 'peer' model). Mediation analysis identified prolonged picture processing as potential explanation. Our results imply that weaker learners can benefit from EMME if they perceive the model as a 'peer' learner. This supports the assumption that social cues such as alleged model competence can influence the effectiveness of EMME. Highlights • Eye Movement Modeling Examples (EMME) illustrated multimedia processing strategies. • Model-observer similarity was varied by manipulating alleged model competence. • Learners with lower domain knowledge benefited from a peer model. • EMME fostered picture processing for learners with lower prior knowledge. • Increased picture processing explained the difference in learning outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]