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This study evaluated muti-mycotoxins in 199 samples including processed infant foods and raw materials collected randomly from an infant food company and assessed their role in dietary exposure in infants and young children via probabilistic risk assessment. Approximately 79.6 % (74/93) of the processed infant foods and 65.1 % (69/106) of the raw materials were contaminated by mycotoxins, with a mean occurrence level of 3.66-321.8 µg/kg. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were the more prevalent mycotoxins detected, based on their higher frequencies and levels across samples. Co-occurrence of more than two mycotoxins was detected in 61.3 % (57/93) of the processed infant foods and 53.8 % (57/106) of the raw materials. Wheat flour and derived products (e.g., infant noodles and infant biscuits) were contaminated with higher contamination levels and a greater variety of mycotoxins than other samples (e.g., infant cereal and rice grains). The estimated daily exposure to OTA, DON, ZEN, and TEN was lower than the corresponding reference health-based guidance values, indicating acceptable health risks. However, the estimated dietary exposure to alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) exceeded the corresponding thresholds of toxicological concern values, indicating potential dietary intake risks. Among the various samples, cereals and cereal-based infant foods emerged as the primary contributors to mycotoxin exposure. Further research is advised to address the uncertainties surrounding the toxicity associated with emerging Alternaria mycotoxins and to conduct cumulative risk assessments concerning multiple mycotoxin exposure in infants and young children., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Chemical hazards in foods, especially naturally occurring food contaminants like mycotoxins, are of serious public health concern. It is important to develop a practical framework to assess and rank health risks of chemical contaminants which can be further utilized by regulatory agencies to prioritize resources for risk assessment and management. In this study, a tiered hazard-prioritization and risk-ranking approach, which included two steps: exposure-based screening and margin of exposure (MOE)-based probabilistic risk ranking; was proposed to efficiently identify and rank chemicals of health concerns. Given the exposure-based hazard prioritization, chemicals with negligible or low health risks were first excluded. The remaining chemicals, imposing a higher health risk, were then ranked to facilitate risk-based decision making. The proposed approach was applied to identify and rank the mycotoxins with substantial health concerns in food commodities randomly sampled in China. A total of 19 mycotoxins were analyzed in 783 food commodities, including infant cookie, noodle, rice flour samples, wheat flour, millet, and rice. Results showed that the mycotoxins in infant foods with the highest health risk were Tenuazonic acid, Deoxynivalenol, and Enniatin B1, but as indicated by the probabilistic MOE estimation, the risks were still in the acceptable range and generally lower than the risks imposed by trace elements (e.g., Arsenic and Cadmium). The health risks of the other 16 mycotoxins were negligible mainly due to their low exposure levels. This study demonstrated that the proposed tiered approach was an efficient and effective tool to quantify and prioritize health risks in support of human health risk management., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Wheat grains are susceptible to contamination with various natural mycotoxins including regulated and emerging mycotoxins. This study surveyed the natural presence of regulated mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), and emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs such as ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1) and Alternaria mycotoxins (i.e., alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), and altenuene (ALT)) in wheat grains randomly collected from eight provinces across China in 2021. The results revealed that each wheat grain sample was detected with at least one type of mycotoxin. The detection rates of these mycotoxins ranged from 7.1% to 100%, with the average occurrence level ranging from 1.11 to 921.8 µg/kg. DON and TeA were the predominant mycotoxins with respect to both prevalence and concentration. Approximately 99.7% of samples were found to contain more than one toxin, and the co-occurrence of ten toxins (DON + ZEN + ENA + ENA1 + ENB + ENB1 + AME + AOH + TeA + TEN) was the most frequently detected combination. The dietary exposure to different mycotoxins among Chinese consumers aged 4-70 years was as follows: 0.592-0.992 µg/kg b.w./day for DON, 0.007-0.012 µg/kg b.w./day for ZEN, 0.0003-0.007 µg/kg b.w./day for BEA and ENNs, 0.223-0.373 µg/kg b.w./day for TeA, and 0.025-0.041 µg/kg b.w./day for TEN, which were lower than the health-based guidance values for each mycotoxin, with the corresponding hazard quotient (HQ) being far lower than 1, implying a tolerable health risk for Chinese consumers. However, the estimated dietary exposure to AME and AOH was in the range of 0.003-0.007 µg/kg b.w./day, exceeding the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) value of 0.0025 µg/kg b.w./day, demonstrating potential dietary risks for Chinese consumers. Therefore, developing practical control and management strategies is essential for controlling mycotoxins contamination in the agricultural systems, thereby ensuring public health.

A multi-functional nanoflares biosensor of spherical gold nanoparticle (Au NP) modified by fluorophore-labeled oligonucleotides (ONS) was designed for ultra-sensitive multi-target mycotoxin analysis in food. Au NP was densely modified with multiplex highly oriented hairpins of oligonucleotides (ONS), each ONS was hybridized to a reporter with a distinct fluorophore label and specifically affiliative to its corresponding mycotoxin target. The fluorescent signals of reporters were pre-quenched by Au NP based on ONS hairpin structures and recovered when exposed to ONS's targets. Excitation-emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence detection was performed in EX and EM wavelength of 200-800 nm. Heavily overlapping spectra of fluorophores, mycotoxins and backgrounds were resolved by alternative trilinear decomposition (ATLD) algorithm, pure spectra of specific fluorophore responding to mycotoxin target can be extracted out for quantitative analysis. Four mycotoxins (Aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, Fumonisins B1, ochratoxin A) were simultaneously quantified at extremely low level with limit of detection <0.02 μg kg -1 , the average recovery accuracies were higher than 91.7 % in various matrices of cereals, nuts, edible oils. This study realized an important breakthrough of the application of nanoflares biosensor and maybe promising to be as an alternative strategy for onsite mycotoxins monitoring of food., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and emerging Alternaria toxins often co-occur in cereal-based products, but the current risk assessment is commonly conducted for only one type of mycotoxin at a time. Compared to adults, infants and young children are more susceptible to mycotoxins through food consumption, especially with cereal-based food products which are the main source of exposure. This study aimed to perform a probabilistic risk assessment of combined exposure to DON and three major Alternaria toxins, namely including alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) through consumption of cereal-based foods for Chinese infants and young children. A total of 872 cereal-based food products were randomly collected and tested for the occurrence of DON and three major Alternaria toxins. The results on mycotoxin occurrence showed the DON, TeA, AOH, and AME was detected in 56.4%, 47.5%, 7.5%, and 5.7% of the samples, respectively. Co-contamination of various mycotoxins was observed in 39.9% of the analyzed samples. A preliminary cumulative risk assessment using the models of hazard index (HI) and combined margin of exposure (MoET) was performed on DON and Alternaria toxins that were present in cereal-based food products for infants and young children in China for the first time. The results showed that only 0.2% and 1.5%, respectively, of individuals exceeded the corresponding reference value for DON and TeA, indicating a low health risk. However, in the case of AME and AOH, the proportion of individuals exceeding the reference value was 24.1% and 33.5%, respectively, indicating the potential health risks. In the cumulative risk assessment of AME and AOH, both HI and MoET values indicated a more serious risk than that related to individual exposure. Further research is necessary to reduce the uncertainties that are associated with the toxicities of the Alternaria toxins and cumulative risk assessment methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natural occurrence of mycotoxins like Alternaria mycotoxins in food commodities is concerning in terms of health risks for humans. Currently, detailed investigations of Alternaria mycotoxins, such as alternariol (AOH), alternariol methyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), and altenuene (ALT) in food commodities marketed through e-commerce stores in China remains scarce. In addition, not many studies have focused on the associated dietary risk of these mycotoxins. This study conducted a survey (486 samples) for five Alternaria mycotoxins using ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) methods. Among five Alternaria mycotoxins, TeA had the highest occurrence rate (51.0%) and concentration (average concentration of 40.6 μg/kg) in food commodities, followed by TEN, AOH, AME, and ALT. Millet and tomato products were contaminated with higher levels of TeA than other types of food commodities. The combination of TeA + TEN and AME + TeA + TEN were the predominant two contamination patterns detected in cereal and fruit products. Chronic dietary exposures to Alternaria mycotoxins were performed by the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) approach. The mean and 95th percentile chronic dietary exposures to AOH and AME indicated different risk levels for consumers in China, with the highest exposure observed in the 2–7 years group, indicating potential dietary health concern. The mean chronic dietary exposures to TeA and ALT did not indicate a risk for the consumers, but the exposure to TeA through cereal product consumption exceeded the TTC value in the 2–12 years group at 95th percentile evaluation. Therefore, strategies should be continuously adopted to decrease or eliminate the occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in food commodities in order to reduce the dietary risks for humans. • Alternaria toxins screened in food samples marketed through e-ecommerce stores. • About 60.3% (293/486) of samples were contaminated with Alternaria toxins. • Co-occurrence Alternaria toxins was detected in 36.8% (179/486) of food samples. • Dietary exposures to Alternaria toxins indicated different risk levels for consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Distribution of DON, 3-Ac-DON, and15-Ac-DON throughout the wheat product processing chain was investigated. • Quantitative analysis of the amount changes of DON and its derivatives during food processing chain. • Processing factors of DON in wheat-derived products were first studied. • Dietary risk assessment for DON was assessed in various Chinese population groups. The distribution of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-Ac-DON) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-Ac-DON) throughout the wheat processing chain were systemically evaluated by one-to-one corresponding studies of the whole processing chain. DON and its derivatives were determined by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) in wheat grains and corresponding wheat bran, wheat flour, and semi-finished and finished wheat flour-based products. This investigation showed that wheat grain processing to wheat flour significantly decreased the levels of DON by approximately 52.7%–68.2%. Wheat flour processing of wheat flour-based products decreased the DON concentration by approximately 7.0%–70.6%. Among the processing methods, biscuit making showed the largest reduction (70.6%). The co-occurrence frequency of DON with low levels of 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON was significantly greater in wheat grains and wheat bran than in wheat flour. For wheat flour-based products, only the distribution pattern of 3-Ac-DON was observable in processed wheat flour products prepared using grains heavily contaminated with DON. In China, to the best of our knowledge, the processing factors (PFs) of DON in wheat flour and wheat flour-based products were systematically evaluated for the first time. The average PF of DON was 0.35 for wheat flour and the average PFs were 0.37–0.84 for wheat flour-based products, with biscuits having the smallest PF (0.37), indicating DON significantly decreasing in biscuit making. Furthermore, dietary exposure assessment of DON indicated an acceptable overall health risk in Chinese consumers, with the highest exposure being observed in infants and young children. This study provides important references for classified management of DON limits in wheat and its various products in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternaria species are invasive fungi that infect fruits and vegetables and produce Alternaria toxins resulting in loss of commodity values and harmful effects on human health. To establish a reliable analytical method for Alternaria toxins in fruits, vegetables and their derivatives (e.g., fruit and vegetable juices, purees and jams; dried fruit and vegetables; fruit and vegetable powders), a QuEChERS extraction method was developed and validated for the determination of most reported Alternaria toxins (alternariol monomethyl ether [AME], alternariol [AOH], tentoxin [TEN], tenuazonic acid [TeA], and altenuene [ALT]). The limits of quantitation (LOQ) of the target analytes in food matrices were 1.0–5.0 μg/kg. The extraction recoveries were 73.0%–120%, with good repeatability (<12.9%) and within-laboratory repeatability (<14.7%). The developed method was applied to 270 fruits, vegetables, and their derivatives randomly collected from the market in China. Approximately 45.2% of the samples were contaminated with varying levels of Alternaria toxins. The lowest incidence of contamination by Alternaria toxins was detected in fruits and vegetables (3.6%), and the highest incidence was found in fruit and vegetable powders (60.6%). TeA exhibited the highest detection frequency (22.6%) and the highest level of occurrence level (639 μg/kg) among the tested samples, followed by AOH (14.1%), ALT (11.9%), AME (4.4%), and TEN (3.3%). Furthermore, the simultaneous co-presence of two to five Alternaria toxins was detected in 13.7% of the analyzed samples. The combination of AOH + TeA was the most predominant, accounting for 4.8% of samples. This study developed a reliable and sensitive analytical method and provided representative occurrence data to support the assessment of emerging mycotoxins, especially Alternaria toxins, in fruit and vegetable products. • A QuEChERs extraction method developed for Alternaria toxins determination. • Five Alternaria toxins surveyed in 270 fruit and vegetable products. • High incidence and levels of Alternaria toxins found in fruit and vegetable powders. • Puree and juice samples detected various types of co-occurrences of Alternaria toxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]