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This paper shifts the axis of analysis of imperialism and argues that the classic ‘divide and rule’ policy was implemented in a horizontal and vertical dimension simultaneously. By theorising Georg Simmel’s classic triadic configurations, this paper explores whether in the British imperial strategy a divisive mechanism was set up within which inter-communal problems were exploited or an advantage was gained simply by being atertius gaudens, i.e. a rejoicing third. This paper argues that the British Empire deliberately introduced a ‘divide and rule’ structure in order to gain an advantage in existing or emerging hostilities between the local communities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper aims to challenge simplifications on race and racism in contemporary Turkish society. In doing so, it draws a macro-historical context wherein the racist component of the Turkish national identity had been shaped. The paper traces the emergence of the core racist elements at the beginning of the 20th century within the ideology propagated by the organization of the Turkish Hearths (Türk Ocakları). The Turkish History Thesis with its emphasis on ‘race’ attempted to promote not only an affiliation but also a common ancestry between Turkish and Western civilization. These arguments were backed by commissioning research carried out in the fields of Anthropology, Archaeology and Linguistics. The main argument of this paper is that the racist components of the national identity in Turkey have been the product of a Eurocentric understanding of world history by consecutive nationalist leaders. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]