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Methods from the field of computer graphics are the foundation for the representation of geological structures in the form of geological models. However, as many of these methods have been developed for other types of applications, some of the requirements for the representation of geological features may not be considered, and the capacities and limitations of different algorithms are not always evident. In this work, we therefore review surface-based geological modelling methods from both a geological and computer graphics perspective. Specifically, we investigate the use of NURBS (non-uniform rational B-splines) and subdivision surfaces, as two main parametric surface-based modelling methods, and compare the strengths and weaknesses of the two approaches. Although NURBS surfaces have been used in geological modelling, subdivision surfaces as a standard method in the animation and gaming industries have so far received little attention—even if subdivision surfaces support arbitrary topologies and watertight boundary representation, two aspects that make them an appealing choice for complex geological modelling. It is worth mentioning that watertight models are an important basis for subsequent process simulations. Many complex geological structures require a combination of smooth and sharp edges. Investigating subdivision schemes with semi-sharp creases is therefore an important part of this paper, as semi-sharp creases characterise the resistance of a mesh structure to the subdivision procedure. Moreover, non-manifold topologies, as a challenging concept in complex geological and reservoir modelling, are explored, and the subdivision surface method, which is compatible with non-manifold topology, is described. Finally, solving inverse problems by fitting the smooth surfaces to complex geological structures is investigated with a case study. The fitted surfaces are watertight, controllable with control points, and topologically similar to the main geological structure. Also, the fitted model can reduce the cost of modelling and simulation by using a reduced number of vertices in comparison with the complex geological structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building geometrically realistic representations of geological heterogeneity in reservoir models is a challenging task that is limited by the inflexibility of pre-defined pillar or cornerpoint grids. The surface-based modelling workflow uses grid-free surfaces that allows efficient creation of geological models without the limitations of pre-defined grids. Surface-based reservoir modelling uses a boundary representation approach in which all heterogeneity of interest (structural, stratigraphic, sedimentological, diagenetic) is modelled by its bounding surfaces, independent of any grid. Volumes bounded by these surfaces are internally homogeneous and, thus, no additional facies or petrophysical modelling is performed within these geological domains and no grid or mesh discretisation is needed during modelling. Any heterogeneity to be modelled within such volumes is incorporated by adding surfaces. Surfaces and curves are modelled using a parametric non-uniform rational B-splines (NURBS) description. These surfaces are efficient to generate and manipulate, and allow fast creation of multiple realisations of geometrically realistic reservoir models. Multiple levels of surface hierarchy are introduced to allow modelling of all features of interest at the required level of detail; surfaces at one hierarchical level are constructed so as to truncate or conform to surfaces of a higher hierarchical level. This procedure requires the joining, terminating and stacking of surfaces to ensure that models contain "watertight" surface-bounded volumes. NURBS curves are used to represent well trajectories accurately, including multi-laterals or side-tracks. Once all surfaces and wells have been generated, they are combined into a reservoir model that takes into account geological relationships between surfaces and preserves realistic geometries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]