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The mechanical influences involved in the interaction between the Antarctic sea ice and ocean surface current (OSC) on the subpolar Southern Ocean have been systematically investigated for the first time by conducting two simulations that include and exclude the OSC in the calculation of the ice-ocean stress (IOS), using an eddy-permitting coupled ocean-sea ice global model. By comparing the results of these two experiments, significant increases of 5%, 27%, and 24%, were found in the subpolar Southern Ocean when excluding the OSC in the IOS calculation for the ocean surface stress, upwelling, and downwelling, respectively. Excluding the OSC in the IOS calculation also visibly strengthens the total mechanical energy input to the OSC by about 16%, and increases the eddy kinetic energy and mean kinetic energy by about 38% and 12%, respectively. Moreover, the response of the meridional overturning circulation in the Southern Ocean yields respective increases of about 16% and 15% for the upper and lower branches; and the subpolar gyres are also found to considerably intensify, by about 12%, 11%, and 11% in the Weddell Gyre, the Ross Gyre, and the Australian-Antarctic Gyre, respectively. The strengthened ocean circulations and Ekman pumping result in a warmer sea surface temperature (SST), and hence an incremental surface heat loss. The increased sea ice drift and warm SST lead to an expansion of the sea ice area and a reduction of sea ice volume. These results emphasize the importance of OSCs in the air-sea-ice interactions on the global ocean circulations and the mass balance of Antarctic ice shelves, and this component may become more significant as the rapid change of Antarctic sea ice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have indicated that marine heatwaves (MHWs) have had severe impacts on the marine ecosystem in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, but there have been few studies focused on MHWs in the Arctic. On the other hand, amplified rapid warming in the Arctic region makes it a hotspot strategically and economically worldwide. In this study, we documented that the average intensity of MHWs in the Arctic was comparable with that in the other regions of the global oceans. The annual intensity, frequency, duration, and areal coverage of MHWs have increased significantly in recent decades. The increase of the annual duration is mainly owing to the postponed end time, thus the prolonged periods, of the MHW seasons. Our analysis indicates that the increasing trends of the annual intensity, frequency, duration, and areal coverage in the Arctic are closely associated with the increasing surface air temperature and decreasing sea‐ice concentration under the global warming environment. These features are robust across three different sea surface temperature (SST) products and using different MHW criteria. Plain Language Summary: Events of extremely warm waters in the oceans are known as marine heatwaves (MHWs). Past MHW research has used sea surface temperature (SST) to diagnose MHWs and has focused on the tropical and subtropical oceans. The questions we address here are: (a) Are there any MHW events in the Arctic region where SSTs are generally low? and (b) Are the MHWs weaker or stronger in the Arctic than in the other oceans? Our study indicates that: (a) MHWs do exist in the Arctic, (b) their strengths increase with time, and (c) they are stronger than those in the other oceans in the most recent decades. These MHWs may have a strong impact on the Arctic bio‐ecosystem due to their low heat tolerance since the seasonal variation of SST in the Arctic is small. Key Points: The average marine heatwaves (MHWs) in the Arctic are as strong as in the other ocean basins in 1982–2020The annual intensity are stronger in 2000–2020 than in 1982–2000, which is consistent with changes in air temperature, sea‐ice, and cloudThe increase of annual duration is largely associated with the postponed end time of the MHW seasons [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Austral summer 2016/2017, the sea ice extent (SIE) in the Weddell Sea dropped to a near‐record value in the satellite era (1.88 × 106 km2), a large negative seasonal anomaly that persisted in an unprecedented fashion for the following three summers. Various atmospheric and oceanic factors played a part in the change. Ice loss started in September 2016 when the northern Weddell Sea experienced westerly winds of record strength, advecting multiyear sea ice from the region. In late 2016, a polynya over Maud Rise contributed to low SIE over the eastern Weddell Sea. With extensive areas of open water early in the summer, upper ocean temperatures increased by ~0.5°C, with the anomalies persisting in subsequent years. The reappearance of the Maud Rise polynya in 2017, high ocean temperatures, and storms of record depth kept the summer SIE low. Plain Language Summary: Sea ice is an extremely important part of the Antarctic environment, providing an essential habitat for seals, seabirds, and Antarctic krill. It also caps the ocean, strongly influencing the transfer of heat from the relatively warm ocean into the frigid Antarctic atmosphere. In addition, it affects the ocean circulation through the release of salt when ice grows. In 2016/2017, the extent of summer sea ice in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica, dropped to a near‐record level in the satellite era, which starts in late 1978. The ice loss was in part caused by the reappearance of the Maud Rise polynya, an area of open water within the main area of pack ice. The ice‐free conditions allowed more energy from the Sun to be absorbed by the ocean, with the higher ocean temperatures persisting in subsequent years and slowing the formation of new ice. In parallel, westerly winds of record strength carried sea ice out of the region, so that the summer sea ice extent in the Weddell Sea is now 1,000,000 km2 less than in 2013/2014. Key Points: Summer sea ice in the Weddell Sea, Antarctica decreased to a near‐record low extent in 2016/2017 and has subsequently remained lowWesterly winds of record strength and the reappearance of the Maud Rise polynya were significant factors in the change in ice conditionsThe Weddell Sea summer ice extent is now 1,000,000 km2 less than in 2013/2014 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high resolution global ocean-sea ice model is employed to investigate the impacts of open-ocean deep convection on coastal and bottom water temperature in the Weddell Sea. The imposed strong and persistent cyclonic wind forcing and the large loss of bottom water weaken the stratification and eventually trigger the occurrence of open-ocean deep convection in the southern limb of the Weddell Gyre in this model. The production rate of the bottom water induced by the deep convection is estimated to be about 5 Sv (1 Sv = 10 m/s) for a polynya with a similar size to that of the observed Weddell Polynya in the mid-1970s. The cooling induced by deep convection at mid-depth is transported towards the shelf regions by standing meanders or eddies to affect the basal melting of ice shelves, and is transported westward by an intensified slope current; interior coastal temperature in regions with a broader continental shelf is less affected by the deep convection, as the intensified slope current acts to suppress heat exchanges across the shelf break. Also, the deep convection causes warming in the Weddell bottom water around the convection site, when the simulated polynya size is similar to that of the observed Weddell Polynya in the mid-1970s. This finding sheds light on the observed non-monotonic decadal change (cooling between 1984-1992 and warming between 1998-2008) in the Weddell bottom water temperature. When the simulated polynya further develops into a large size across the Weddell Sea, the sustained broad deep convection causes large cooling in the bottom water in the western Weddell Sea and warming in the eastern Weddell Sea, with the bottom water temperature also being strongly modulated by a greatly intensified Weddell Gyre. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent observations suggest Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) properties are changing. The impact of such variations is explored using idealised perturbation experiments with a coupled climate model, HadCM3. AAIW properties are altered between 10 and 20°S in the South Atlantic, maintaining constant potential density. The perturbed AAIW remains subsurface in the South Atlantic, but as it moves northwards, it surfaces and interacts with the atmosphere leading to density anomalies due to heat exchanges. For a cooler, fresher AAIW, there is a significant decrease in the mean North Atlantic sea surface temperature (SST), of up to 1°C, during years 51-100. In the North Atlantic Current region there are persistent cold anomalies from 2,000 m depth to the surface, and in the overlying atmosphere. Atmospheric surface pressure increases over the mid-latitude Atlantic, and precipitation decreases over northwest Africa and southwest Europe. Surface heat flux anomalies show that these impacts are caused by changes in the ocean rather than atmospheric forcing. The SST response is associated with significant changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC). After 50 years there is a decrease in the MOC that persists for the remainder of the simulation, resulting from changes in the column-averaged density difference between 30°S and 60°N. Rather than showing a linear response, a warmer, saltier AAIW also leads to a decreased MOC strength for years 51-100 and resulting cooling in the North Atlantic. The non-linearity can be attributed to opposing density responses as the perturbed water masses interact with the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]