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Olive has a notable importance in countries of Mediterranean basin and its profitability depends on several factors such as actual yield, production cost or product price. Actual “on year” Yield (AY) is production (kg tree−1) in “on years”, and this research attempts to relate it with geometrical parameters of the tree canopy. Regression equation to forecast AY based on manual canopy volume was determined based on data acquired from different orchard categories and cultivars during different harvesting seasons in southern Spain. Orthoimages were acquired with unmanned aerial systems (UAS) imagery calculating individual crown for relating to canopy volume and AY. Yield levels did not vary between orchard categories; however, it did between irrigated orchards (7000–17,000 kg ha−1) and rainfed ones (4000–7000 kg ha−1). After that, manual canopy volume was related with the individual crown area of trees that were calculated by orthoimages acquired with UAS imagery. Finally, AY was forecasted using both manual canopy volume and individual tree crown area as main factors for olive productivity. AY forecast only by using individual crown area made it possible to get a simple and cheap forecast tool for a wide range of olive orchards. Finally, the acquired information was introduced in a thematic map describing spatial AY variability obtained from orthoimage analysis that may be a powerful tool for farmers, insurance systems, market forecasts or to detect agronomical problems.

Trunk shakers are widely used for olive harvesting, being the main detachment system for fruit harvesting. In recent decades, the components of trunk shakers have evolved at mechanical, hydraulic and control levels. However, machine accuracy depends on the operator, whose expertise is a key factor for issues such as trunk debarking caused by grabbing systems, shaking parameters, or on-foot operator safety. The objective of this work was to develop an automatic trunk-detection system to reduce operator influence on the process. Thus, the automatic system via infrared sensor was implemented on a trunk shaker head hitched to a tractor. A control algorithm, control logic and display for trunk grabbing automation were developed. The automatic system was tested under laboratory and field conditions to assess the influence of some variables on trunk detection. The evaluated variables were colour, material, diameter, and target location within the sensor field of vision. The success rate of the automatic system was 91% for trunk grabbing. In the field phase, the efficacy of the automatic system was compared to an operator performing the tasks manually, obtaining times of 16.05 ± 2.8 s tree −1 and 21.54 ± 5.29 s tree −1 respectively, and a percentage of success in trunk grabbing of 92.9%. Automatic mode improved manual mode by saving 27.3% of time, improving effective field capacity. The automatic mode developed here provided a high ratio of success and it showed highly reliable and efficient performance compared with manual mode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The harvesting process of the olive tree is mainly performed by manual means, because traditional olive orchards (the main planting typology) are formed of irregular, large-canopy trees that are very difficult to harvest mechanically. For that reason, the cost of harvesting is very high, and it threatens the future of these plantations whose conversion to other more modern layouts is not always possible due to several limitations. The introduction of a harvester may represent the technological change that is the key factor for improved competitiveness. The main purpose of this work was to develop a harvester based on canopy shaker technology for work on irregular, large trees in a circular path. The design of the harvester was based on a determination of tree geometry, together with tree training. Field tests were used to determine machine-tree interaction, and to evaluate the removal, catch frame and driven systems. The proposed innovation allowed the fully mechanical harvest of previously planted trees with a removal efficiency of over 84%, achieving an effective field capacity of 0.21 hm²/h. Although the results so far have been promising, further improvements are advisable in machine and tree adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Crown porosity influences radiation interception, air movement through the fruit orchard, spray penetration, and harvesting operation in fruit crops. The aim of the present study was to develop an accurate and reliable methodology based on transmitted radiation measurements to assess the porosity of traditional olive trees under different pruning treatments. Transmitted radiation was employed as an indirect method to measure crown porosity in two olive orchards of the Picual and Hojiblanca cultivars. Additionally, three different pruning treatments were considered to determine if the pruning system influences crown porosity. This study evaluated the accuracy and repeatability of four algorithms in measuring crown porosity under different solar zenith angles. From a 14 to 30 solar zenith angle, the selected algorithm produced an absolute error of less than 5% and a repeatability higher than 0.9. The described method and selected algorithm proved satisfactory in field results, making it possible to measure crown porosity at different solar zenith angles. However, pruning fresh weight did not show any relationship with crown porosity due to the great differences between removed branches. A robust and accurate algorithm was selected for crown porosity measurements in traditional olive trees, making it possible to discern between different pruning treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensors, communication systems and geo-reference units are required to achieve an optimized management of agricultural inputs with respect to the economic and environmental aspects of olive groves. In this study, three commercial olive harvesters were tracked during two harvesting seasons in Spain and Chile using remote and autonomous equipment that was developed to determine their time efficiency and effective based on canopy shaking for fruit detachment. These harvesters work in intensive/high-density (HD) and super-high-density (SHD) olive orchards. A GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) device was installed to track these harvesters. The GNSS receiver did not affect the driver's work schedule. Time elements methodology was adapted to the remote data acquisition system. The effective field capacity and field efficiency were investigated. In addition, the field shape, row length, angle between headland alley and row, and row alley width were measured to determinate the optimum orchard design parameters value. The SHD olive harvester showed significant lower effective field capacity values when alley width was less than 4 m. In addition, a yield monitor was developed and installed on a traditional olive harvester to obtain a yield map from the harvested area. The hedge straddle harvester stood out for its highly effective field capacity; nevertheless, a higher field efficiency was provided by a non-integral lateral canopy shaker. All of the measured orchard parameters have influenced machinery yields, whether effective field capacity or field efficiency. A saving of 40% in effective field capacity was achieved with a reduction from 4 m or higher to 3.5 m in alley width for SHD olive harvester. A yield map was plotted using data that were acquired by a yield monitor, reflecting the yield gradient in spite of the larger differences between tree yields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ultrasonic sensors are often used to adjust spray volume by allowing the calculation of the crown volume of tree crops. The special conditions of the olive tree require the use of long-range sensors, which are less accurate and faster than the most commonly used sensors. The main objectives of the study were to determine the suitability of the sensor in terms of sound cone determination, angle errors, crosstalk errors and field measurements. Different laboratory tests were performed to check the suitability of a commercial long-range ultrasonic sensor, as were the experimental determination of the sound cone diameter at several distances for several target materials, the determination of the influence of the angle of incidence of the sound wave on the target and distance on the accuracy of measurements for several materials and the determination of the importance of the errors due to interference between sensors for different sensor spacings and distances for two different materials. Furthermore, sensor accuracy was tested under real field conditions. The results show that the studied sensor is appropriate for olive trees because the sound cone is narrower for an olive tree than for the other studied materials, the olive tree canopy does not have a large influence on the sensor accuracy with respect to distance and angle, the interference errors are insignificant for high sensor spacings and the sensor's field distance measurements were deemed sufficiently accurate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management of olive pruning residue has shifted from burning to shredding, laying residues on soil, or harvesting residues for use as a derivative. The objective of this research is to develop, test, and validate a methodology to measure the dimensions, outline, and bulk volume of pruning residue windrows in olive orchards using both a manual and a 3D Time-of-Flight (ToF) camera. Trees were pruned using trunk shaker targeted pruning, from which two different branch sizes were selected to build two separate windrow treatments with the same pruning residue dose. Four windrows were built for each treatment, and four sampling points were selected along each windrow to take measurements using both manual and 3D ToF measurements. Windrow section outline could be defined using a polynomial or a triangular function, although manual measurement required processing with a polynomial function, especially for high windrow volumes. Different branch sizes provided to be significant differences for polynomial function coefficients, while no significant differences were found for windrow width. Bigger branches provided less bulk volume, which implied that these branches formed less porous windrows that smaller ones. Finally, manual and 3D ToF camera measurements were validated, giving an adequate performance for olive pruning residue windrow in-field assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Table olive harvesting is highly dependent on manual labour and may jeopardize the crop benefit. The introduction of a mechanical harvest system requires a global evaluation of the whole process. A trunk shaker along with shaker combs and a continuous canopy shaker harvester have been tested in two orchards with different tree training and layout to determine their feasibility to mechanical harvesting in table olives. For that purpose, several parameters have been evaluated. Canopy shaker required adapted orchard layout and hedge of canopies for reaching an acceptable harvesting efficiency about 80% and trunk shaker performed a higher efficiency of more than 95% but depended highly on labour. Both systems had a high field capacity about 0.15 ha h-1 but low for the trunk shaker considering the people (0.01 ha h1 person-1). The vibration pattern that applied on branches was totally different although the quantitative tree damages were no significative different. There were no significant differences in fruit bruising between both systems, but there were between the different sampling points, mainly in the detachment. The fruit bruising index of the remaining fruit on canopy suggests that it is possible to perform a second harvest. Both mechanical systems are suitable for table olive harvesting whilst improving the efficiency of manual systems with bearable damages, but each one has pros and cons that must be considered bearing in mind that require an adaptation of the orchard where there are applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Bruises on olives occur mainly during harvesting and postharvest handling operations. [•] Bruise susceptibility is obtained by measuring bruise volume after a drop test. [•] Bruise susceptibility mainly depends on variety and impact energy. [•] Visible and near-infrared spectroscopy allows studying bruise time evolution. [•] Mitigate bruises require reducing processing time in postharvest operations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Bruise damage on table olives is the main factor that reduces fruit quality and leads to a severe loss of product during harvesting and postharvest handling operations. The Manzanilla cultivar is the most important table olive variety and it is also very susceptible to the formation of bruises. In this study, visible and near-infrared spectroscopy techniques were used to detect bruise damage on fruit with different absorbed impact energy levels (low = 13 ± 2 mJ, medium = 27 ± 2 mJ and high = 58 ± 7 mJ). The visible spectral region of 535–680 nm was used to distinguish between undamaged and damaged fruit for qualitative analysis. The greater differences in reflectance in the near-infrared region of 700–950 nm enabled a good quantitative analysis by distinguishing between the different impact energy levels. Modified partial least square models were developed to determine the bruise volume in damaged fruits and the absorbed energy during impact. Good fits (r 2 = 0.87–0.90) were obtained between the values predicted by visible and near infrared spectroscopy and the values measured in laboratory by the reference methods for bruise volume and absorbed impact energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Low harvesting efficiency and fruit damage are the main limitations for trunk shakers in the harvesting of table olives. Different cultivations of olive orchards, variations in the fruit properties over the harvesting season, and a wide range of machines both characterise and hamper the harvesting process in several traditional olive producing countries, such as Spain. The aim of the work reported was to develop the mechanical harvesting of existing orchards using commercial trunk shakers maximising the quantity of harvested fruit while maintaining its quality. Results showed that the mean value of harvesting efficiency with trunk shakers was 74%, when additional rod beating or abscission agents were not applied. In orchards where the trees were trained into shapes that facilitated the transmission of vibration, fruit properties had a limited effect on harvesting efficiency. In order to achieve harvesting efficiency >85%, tree trunk vibration parameters were set above an acceleration value of 183.4 m s −2 , and at a frequency of 28.1 Hz. Although increasing the trunk acceleration improved harvesting efficiency, it led to an increase in damage to the harvested fruit. Damage caused to the fruit through mechanical harvesting was 3.5 times greater than the damage caused by manual harvesting. Adjusting the vibration parameters, limiting the power of the machine, training the canopy to reduce volume and facilitating the vibration transmission to the fruit, together with effective post-harvest field treatments that maintain the fruit quality, are all required to ensure the success of vibration harvesting systems for green olives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Methodology to control olive traceability from field to consumer. • Development of an electronic device to set onboard machinery. • Development of a web application for data registering and visualizing. • A way of interconnect field and industry to share information. • Two ways for identifying origin of production through RFID and GPS technologies. Most of the advances made in olive traceability are focusing on the arrival of the fruit to industry but it is necessary to manage all the operations involved in the production chain. This work introduces a new machine-to-machine system that allows integrating all the information generated from the field to the market through a methodology for the real-time management of all operations carried out. The consumer can check the product history, farmers can consult and optimise their resources, and industry can control the operations performed. The system developed is composed of an electronic device, iOlivetrack-D, mounted on agricultural machinery which identify plots and sends the information generated to a web application, iOlivetrack-W. The system was tested in real working conditions obtaining good results in the identification of plots using RFID and GPS although the limitation about this technology must be considered for a commercial purpose. The registration of information associated in the web application has been carried successfully by an adaptable system that allow the access to the data in configurable ways. To complete the product chain information, industrial processing operations were simulated by entering the data manually through the application. Finally, a QR code was generated to provide consumer access to product traceability information that may be consulted in this paper. The work shows the pros and cons of this system which allows assured traceability of the entire production chain and the proper manage of the production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]