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Are mother-child conflict discussions shaped by time-varying, reciprocal influences, even after accounting for stable contributions from each individual? Mothers were filmed discussing a conflict for 5 min, separately with their younger (ages 5-9, N = 217) and older (ages 7-13, N = 220) children. Each person's conflict constructiveness was coded in 20-s intervals and data were analyzed using dynamic structural equation modeling, which separates individual and influence effects. Children influenced their mothers' behavior under certain conditions, with evidence for developmental differences in the magnitude and direction of influence, whereas mothers did not influence their children under any circumstance. Results are discussed in the context of child effects on parent behavior and changes in parenting across middle childhood., (© 2020 Society for Research in Child Development.)

Context: Early language development supports cognitive, academic, and behavioral success. Identifying modifiable predictors of child language may inform policies and practices aiming to promote language development., Objective: To synthesize results of observational studies examining parenting behavior and early childhood language in typically developing samples., Data Sources: Searches were conducted in Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Dissertation Abstracts (1967 to 2017)., Study Selection: Studies had 1 of 2 observational measures of parenting behavior (i.e., sensitive responsiveness or warmth) and a measure of child language., Data Extraction: Data from 37 studies were extracted by independent coders. Estimates were examined by using random-effects meta-analysis., Results: Two meta-analyses were conducted, which examined (1) the association between sensitive-responsive parenting and child language ( k = 36; r = 0.27; 95% confidence interval: 0.21 to 0.33); and (2) the association between parental warmth and child language ( k = 13; r = 0.16; 95% confidence interval: 0.09 to 21). The pooled effect size for the association between sensitive responsiveness and child language was statistically higher than that of warmth and child language. The association between sensitive responsiveness and child language was moderated by family socioeconomic status (SES): effect sizes were stronger in low and diverse SES groups compared with middle to upper SES groups. Effect sizes were also stronger in longitudinal versus cross-sectional studies., Limitations: Results are limited to typically developing samples and mother-child dyads. Findings cannot speak to causal processes., Conclusions: Findings support theories describing how sensitive parenting may facilitate language and learning., Competing Interests: POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have indicated they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2019 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.)

The present study examined the effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and sibling differences in birth weight on sibling differences in the receipt of maternal sensitivity (i.e., differential parenting). It was hypothesized that sibling differences in birth weight would predict absolute differential parenting across the sibship (i.e., the more different siblings' birth weight, the more different the level of sensitivity in the family, overall) and child-specific differential parenting (i.e., relatively heavier siblings receiving more sensitivity, compared to his or her counterpart within the family). It was also hypothesized that there would be greater sibling differences in birth weight in lower SES settings. Multiparous mothers were recruited within two weeks of childbirth and filmed interacting with each of their children when younger siblings were 1.60 years (SD = .16, N = 396 younger siblings) and next-older siblings were 4.05 (SD = .75; N = 396 older siblings). Videotapes were coded for maternal sensitivity. Multilevel path-analysis revealed that lower-SES families exhibited greater sibling differences in birth weight, which corresponded to greater absolute differential parenting. Also, heavier siblings received relatively higher levels of sensitivity within the family. This study demonstrates that child and contextual factors operate together in predicting differential parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

This article is part of a Special Issue "Parental Care". Parenting is best understood as a transactional process between parents and their offspring. Each responds to cues in the other, adapting their own behavior to that of their partner. One of the goals of parenting research in the past twenty years has been to untangle reciprocal processes between parents and children in order to specify what comes from the child (child effects) and what comes from the parent (parent effects). Child effects have been found to relate to genetic, pre and perinatal, family-wide, and child-specific environmental influences. Parent effects relate to stresses in the current context (e.g. financial strain, marital conflict), personality and ethnicity but also to adverse childhood experiences (e.g. parental mental health and substance abuse, poverty, divorce). Rodent models have allowed for the specification of biological mechanisms in parent and child effects, including neurobiological and genomic mechanisms, and of the causal role of environmental experience on outcomes for offspring through random assignment of offspring-mother groupings. One of the methods that have been developed in the human and animal models to differentiate between parent and child effects has been to study multiple offspring in the family. By holding the parent steady, and studying different offspring, we can examine the similarities and differences in how parents parent multiple offspring. Studies have distinguished between family average parenting, child-specific parenting and family-wide dispersion (the within family standard deviation). These different aspects of parenting have been differentially linked to offspring behavioral phenotypes., (Crown Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to interpret and understand human behaviour by representing the mental states of others. Like many human capacities, ToM is thought to develop through both complex biological and socialization mechanisms. However, no study has examined the joint effect of genetic and environmental influences on ToM. This study examined how variability in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and parenting behavior--two widely studied factors in ToM development-interacted to predict ToM in pre-school-aged children. Participants were 301 children who were part of an ongoing longitudinal birth cohort study. ToM was assessed at age 4.5 using a previously validated scale. Parenting was assessed through observations of mothers' cognitively sensitive behaviours. Using a family-based association design, it was suggestive that a particular variant (rs11131149) interacted with maternal cognitive sensitivity on children's ToM (P = 0.019). More copies of the major allele were associated with higher ToM as a function of increasing cognitive sensitivity. A sizeable 26% of the variability in ToM was accounted for by this interaction. This study provides the first empirical evidence of gene-environment interactions on ToM, supporting the notion that genetic factors may be modulated by potent environmental influences early in development., (© The Author (2015). Published by Oxford University Press. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: This study examined whether birth weight variation within the normal range was associated with language ability at 36 months, and whether responsive parenting-the putative protective factor-buffered children from the risk of relatively low birth weight., Methods: In all, 467 community mother-child dyads were followed longitudinally from birth. Receptive language was measured at 36 months. Responsive parenting was assessed through observed interactions at 18 months and examined as the hypothesized moderator., Results: Controlling for confounds, both birth weight and responsive parenting positively predicted children's language skills. There was also a significant interaction between birth weight and responsive parenting-higher responsivity was associated with better language ability, and this link was especially pronounced for children at risk owing to relatively low birth weight., Conclusion: Normative differences in birth weight are a source of variability in children's language, but postnatal socialization factors such as parenting may buffer this risk., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society of Pediatric Psychology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Parental responsivity is important to children's cognitive and socioemotional development, yet is under-represented in primary healthcare, because the measurement is specialized and time-consuming., Methods: The current study developed a measure of maternal cognitive sensitivity (CS), which uses impressionistic ratings based on brief observations of parent-child interaction when children are 3 years old., Results: Using data from a longitudinal cohort (Time 1, N = 501), the CS measure had good psychometric properties, was significantly related to a gold-standard maternal responsivity measure, and was predicted by the same socio-demographic factors predictive of other measures of parental responsivity. Finally, a well-established pathway from socioeconomic risk (child age 2 months) to compromised parenting (child age 3 years) to negative child outcome (child age 4.5 years) was demonstrated with CS as the mediator., Conclusion: The maternal CS measure is brief, can be easily trained, and takes 8 min to administer and code, making it potentially useful in primary healthcare settings., (© 2014 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.)

This study tests the hypothesis that links between contextual risk and children's outcomes are partially explained by differential parenting. Using multi-informant measurement and including up to four children per family (Mage  = 3.51, SD = 2.38) in a sample of 397 families, indirect effects (through maternal differential parenting: self-reported and observed) of cumulative contextual risk on four child outcomes were investigated. Cumulative risk was associated with higher levels of differential parenting and, in turn, with higher levels of behavioral problems. Indirect effects were strongest for attentional and social problems but also evident for aggression. The link between differential parenting and outcome was moderated by favoritism, but this was only evident for maternal report and strongest for aggression., (© 2013 The Authors. Child Development © 2013 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

Significant relationships have been demonstrated between parental personality and parenting toward individual children, but there is little research exploring the relationship between parental personality and differential parenting (DP). The present study examined the relationship between the Big Five personality dimensions and differential positivity and negativity in parenting (observed and self-report measures). The analyses are based on a sample of 867 children nested within 381 families. Using multilevel modeling and controlling for child age, gender, birth order, behavior, and family socioeconomic status analyses revealed that maternal and paternal agreeableness were inversely related to reports of differential positivity. Agreeableness predicted observed differential negativity, and the relationship was curvilinear (at both high and low levels of agreeableness, differential negativity was higher). Finally, mothers with the most openness to experience exhibited the highest levels of reported differential negativity. The findings suggest that parental personality is a modest yet important influence to consider when conceptualizing the sources of DP., (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved.)

Objective: Research suggests that early life adversity may affect subsequent parenting. Animal studies investigating mechanisms of transmission have focused on biological factors; whereas research in humans has emphasized cognitive and psychosocial factors. We hypothesized that neuropsychological and physiological factors would act as mediators between maternal retrospective reports of early life experiences (ELE) and current parenting., Method: We recruited a community sample of 89 mothers and their infants (2-6 months of age). Maternal ELE consisted of self-reports of consistency of care and childhood maltreatment. Diurnal salivary cortisol samples were collected as the measure of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function. Executive function measures included attentional set-shifting and spatial working memory. Maternal sensitivity was assessed through videotapes of mothers interacting with their infants., Results: A series of path analyses indicated that maternal ELE was indirectly related to maternal sensitivity via two pathways: one through HPA function, and the other through HPA function and spatial working memory. There was no direct path between maternal ELE and parenting., Conclusion: These findings provide support for the notion that mediators linking early life experiences to parenting in humans may be similar to physiological mechanisms found in animal models. As maternal care is associated with numerous infant outcomes, our findings may have broad relevance to understanding the risk associated with parenting and adverse outcomes in infants. A greater understanding of mechanism is important to informing interventions targeted at disrupting maladaptive trajectories of parenting., (Copyright © 2012 American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In this study the associations between mothers' and fathers' differential parenting and children's oppositional and emotional problems were examined. A curvilinear relationship between differential parenting and children's outcomes was hypothesized, as well as the combined effect of mothers' and fathers' parenting. Data came from a community sample of 599 two-parent families with multiple children per family and were analyzed using a cross-classified multilevel model. Results showed that both family average parenting and differential parenting explained unique variance in children's outcomes. The curvilinear hypothesis was supported for oppositional behavior but not for emotional problems. The effects of mother and father positivity were found to be additive for both family average parenting and differential parenting, but for negativity there was evidence for multiplicative effects.

Variations in parenting within the family (i.e. differential parenting) are associated with various domains of child adjustment, whereby disfavoured siblings exhibit poorer social and emotional outcomes. To date there is no research examining the effects of differential parenting on children's general health, or the way in which differential parenting interacts with socioeconomic markers to predict general health over time. The present study assessed 501 Canadian families at 2 time points separated by 18 months. Differential maternal negativity predicted worse health 18 months later. Moreover, the association between maternal education and child health was strongest when children were also exposed to high levels of differential negativity. Findings indicate that multiple forms of social disadvantage (i.e. between families and between siblings) can operate independently or in a cumulative fashion to predict health across early childhood., (Copyright © 2012. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Objective: The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine change in internalizing symptoms from late childhood (age 10) into mid-adolescence (age 15) in a nationally representative sample of Canadian children. The roles of a child's sex, maternal depressive symptoms in late childhood, and their interactions were investigated., Method: The sample was derived from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Mothers reported on their own depressive symptoms and children reported on their own internalizing symptoms at three time (T) points (T1: 1994/1995; T2: 1996/1997; T3: 1998/1999). Change in children's internalizing symptoms was investigated using multiple regression., Results: Girls increased and boys decreased in their internalizing symptoms from T1 to T3. The effect of maternal depressive symptoms at T1 was moderated by sex and remained significant after controlling for maternal depressive symptoms at T2 and T3, with more adverse effects in girls., Conclusions: The internalizing symptoms of girls increased from childhood to adolescence, whereas those for boys decreased. Female children exposed to maternal depressive symptoms T1 continued to show negative effects 4 years later.

Parent and teacher data for 14,990 children from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth were used in multilevel analyses to examine the relationship between ethnicity, children's aggression and emotional problems, and parenting. Using parent and teacher report, relationships between ethnicity and child behavior were present but modest. The association between parental harshness and child aggression differed between ethnic groups and across informants. Using teacher report of outcomes, parental harshness was positively related to child aggression in European Canadian families but negatively related in South Asian Canadian families. For all ethnic groups, parental harshness was positively related to children's aggression when parent report of outcomes was used, but relationships varied in strength across ethnic groups. The relationship of parental harshness with child emotional problems did not differ across groups, irrespective of informant. The results are discussed within the context of an ecological model of parenting.

This study examined the impact of differential-maternal parenting behavior, evaluated as a family-level experience, on children's emotional-behavioral problems. Data come from 3 child development studies: 2,128 four- to sixteen-year-olds (Ontario Child Health Study), 7,392 four- to eleven-year-olds (National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth), and 1,992 three- to fourteen-year-olds (National Longitudinal Study of Youth). In 2 of 3 studies, there was consistent evidence that differential-maternal parenting behavior had an adverse impact on all siblings as a group, over and above parenting directed at individual siblings. The strength of association was sensitive to the type of maternal parenting behavior, dimension of child maladjustment, and respondent perspective (stronger for hostile/negative parenting, child externalizing problems, and mother assessments of child emotional-behavioral problems).

This article examines the role of the shared family context in understanding differential parental treatment of children. Child-specific and family-context predictors of differential parental positivity and negativity were examined using multilevel modeling in a population of 8,476 children nested in 3,762 families. Child age was the strongest child-specific predictor of positivity and differential positivity. Lower socioeconomic status (SES), marital dissatisfaction, and larger family size were associated with higher levels of differential positivity. There was evidence of potentiation when risks were combined. Children's temperament was associated with parental negativity and differential negativity. The strength of this association was moderated by SES. Mixed-gender sibships in families with marital dissatisfaction and children in single-parent families received the highest levels of differential negativity. The findings are discussed in the context of shared and nonshared environmental influences on development.

This study utilized actor-partner interdependence modeling to examine the bidirectional effects of younger (Mage  = 18 months) and older siblings (Mage  = 48 months) on later empathy development in a large (n = 452 families), diverse (42% immigrant) Canadian sample. Controlling for parenting, demographic characteristics, sibling relationship quality, and within-child stability in empathic concern, both younger and older siblings' observed empathic concern uniquely predicted relative increases in the other's empathy over a period of 18 months. The strength of the partner effects did not differ by birth order. Sex composition moderated the younger sibling partner effect, whereas age gap moderated the older sibling partner effect. This study highlights the important role that siblings play in enhancing the development of care and concern for others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background:To compare a novel relationship-focused intervention (RFI) for maternal substance use, offered through ‘Breaking the Cycle (BTC)’, to standard integrated treatment (SIT). Although SIT focuses on the mother–child relationship tangentially by providing basic parenting information, RFI involves a central focus on promoting healthy maternal relationships with a particular emphasis on fostering mother–child interactions. Method:Measures in the domains of addiction, relationship capacity, and mental health were administered to 65 women receiving RFI and 25 receiving SIT, at intake (T1) and one year later (T2). Results:While both groups of mothers improved in addiction severity, women receiving RFI also improved in mental health functioning and relationship capacity. Improvements in relationship capacity predicted addiction severity, over and above improvements in abstinence self-efficacy, social support, and mental health. Conclusions:Findings highlight the importance of a relationship-focus in assisting mothers to make broad changes that support addiction recovery. Implications and future directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At 18 months, children show marked variability in their social-cognitive skill development, and the preponderance of past research has focused on constitutional and contextual factors in explaining this variability. Extending this literature, the current study examined whether cumulative biomedical risk represents another source of variability in social cognition at 18 months. Further, we aimed to determine whether responsive parenting moderated the association between biomedical risk and social cognition. A prospective community birth cohort of 501 families was recruited at the time of the child's birth. Cumulative biomedical risk was measured as a count of 10 prenatal/birth complications. Families were followed up at 18 months, at which point socialcognitive data was collected on children's joint attention, empathy, cooperation, and self-recognition using previously validated tasks. Concurrently, responsive maternal behavior was assessed through observational coding of mother--child interactions. After controlling for covariates (e.g., age, gender, child language, socioeconomic variables), both cumulative biomedical risk and maternal responsivity significantly predicted social cognition at 18 months. Above and beyond these main effects, there was also a significant interaction between biomedical risk and maternal responsivity, such that higher biomedical risk was significantly associated with compromised social cognition at 18 months, but only in children who experienced low levels of responsive parenting. For those receiving comparatively high levels of responsive parenting, there was no apparent effect of biomedical risk on social cognition. This study shows that cumulative biomedical risk may be one source of inter-individual variability in social cognition at 18 months. However, positive postnatal experiences, particularly high levels of responsive parenting, may protect children against the deleterious effects of these risks on social cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meta-analyses were conducted to examine findings on the association between parenting stress and ADHD. Predictors comprising child, parent, and contextual factors, and methodological and demographic moderators of the relationship between parenting stress and ADHD, were examined. Findings from 22 published and 22 unpublished studies were included. Results confirmed that parents of children with ADHD experience more parenting stress than parents of nonclinical controls and that severity of ADHD symptoms was associated with parenting stress. Child co-occurring conduct problems and parental depressive symptomatology predicted parenting stress. Parents of children with ADHD experienced no more parenting stress than parents of other clinically referred children. Little difference in parenting stress was found between mothers and fathers, but child gender was a significant moderator of parenting stress, with lower stress levels in samples with higher proportions of girls. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Exploring an ecological framework, the goal of the present study was to examine the moderating role of contextual risk on the relationship between differential parenting and children's socio-emotional outcomes. The present study was conducted with a sample of 920 children nested within 397 families (including up to four children per family). Using a multivariate multilevel modelling strategy, we examined a range of contextual risks including maternal personal factors (educational level, family-average parenting, depression, history of abuse and teen motherhood), parental and family factors (lone-parent and step-parent families and marital conflict) and home and community factors (household disorganization neighbourhood quality, collective efficacy and personal safety/victimization). Overall, the moderating role of context was found to be more evident for differential negativity than for differential positivity. Moreover, higher levels of contextual risk were associated with stronger links between differential parenting and child outcomes, with more deleterious effects for the disfavoured child. This same effect was seen when individual risks were aggregated into a cumulative risk index. The exception to this pattern was household disorganization in some cases, children showed more sensitivity to differential parenting at low levels of household disorganization. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the effects of situational (child situational emotions) and dispositional (child temperament) child variables on mothers’ regulation of their own hostile (anger) and nonhostile (sadness and anxiety) emotions. Participants included 94 low and middle income mothers and their children (41 girls; 53 boys) aged 3 to 6 years. Children's situational emotions (anger, sadness, or fear) and parent emotion type (hostile or nonhostile) were important predictors of mothers’ regulation, but their effects were influenced by SES: Middle income mothers were more likely to control hostile than nonhostile emotions in response to child anger and sadness, and more likely than low income mothers to control hostile emotions in response to child sadness and fear. Low income mothers were more likely than middle income mothers to control nonhostile emotions in response to child anger. However, results also suggest that differences in emotion regulation between low and middle income mothers may stem from the link between SES and authoritarian parenting beliefs. Maternal regulation of negative emotion was not predicted by child temperament. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The links between parent-reported parent-child relationship quality and teacher-reported peer relationship quality were investigated in a sample of biological and adoptive families in the Colorado Adoption Project (CAP; n = 423 children). Data were analyzed using a nmltilevel model approach, Results indicated that teacher-rated popularity, but not peer problems, was significantly influenced by genetic factors. Longitudinal analyses indicated that parental report of warmth/ support and child-reported family expressiveness at age 10 years both predicted teacher-rated popularity at age 12 after age 10 popularity was statistically controlled. Also, parental negative control, at age 10 years predicted a positive change in peer problems at age 12 years. The effect of parent-child relationship quality on the change in peer relationship quality was obtained in both biological and adoptive families, Finally, evidence of reciprocal influence over time was found for parental negative control, and peer problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The current study examined the influence of the placement on academic outcomes in youth receiving out-of-home care. A two-level multilevel model was used to partition variance in youth in care''s academic success scores into placement and child-specific levels of influence. Associations between caregiver involvement and academic success in youth in care were also examined. Assessment and Action Record (AAR) data from the Ontario Looking after Children (OnLAC) project were analyzed. The sample included data from 687 youth between 10 and 15years of age (M age=12.99years, SD =1.68), with slightly more boys (n =389) than girls (n =298). While individual differences in academic success were primarily attributable to child-specific effects (85%), 15% of the variance can be attributable to differences between placements. Results also suggested that caregivers who provided more academic support at home and a more positive literacy environment were also more likely to care for youth with higher levels of academic success. Surprisingly, caregiver school-based involvement was not significantly associated with academic achievement in youth in care. Lastly, higher levels of caregiver expectations within the placement and youth''s own differential experience were both associated with more academic success. These results suggest that academic outcomes of youth in care may be influenced by the placement in which they live. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Developmental research during COVID-19 suggests that pandemic-related disruptions in family relationships are associated with children's mental health. Most of this research has focused on 1 child per family, thereby obfuscating patterns that are differentially operative at the family-wide (i.e., between-family) versus child-specific (i.e., within-family) levels of analysis. Thus, the current study evaluates multilevel, longitudinal associations between COVID-19 disruption, family relationships, and caregiver/child mental health using a sibling comparison methodology. Caregivers (N = 549 families with 1098 children between 5 and 18 years old) were recruited from the Prolific research panel (73% White-European; 68% female; 76% United Kingdom, 19% U.S.A.; median 2019 income $50,000–$74,999). Caregiver reports of COVID-19 disruption, psychological distress, family functioning, parenting, and child mental health (for 2 children per family) were provided during May (time 1) and July (time 2) 2020. A Bayesian multilevel path analysis with random effects revealed: (a) families were experiencing difficulties across domains when COVID-19 disruption was high; (b) COVID-19 disruption corresponded to greater sibling differences in mental health; and (c) the sibling with poorer mental health received lower quality parenting over time, especially in families who reported higher levels of differential parenting. Findings suggest that understanding children's mental health difficulties during COVID-19 requires a family system lens due to the multiple ways these consequences permeate across the family unit. Comprehensive interventions for children's mental health during this time will likely require an examination of caregiver, sibling, and whole-family dynamics in the context of evidence-based telehealth practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origins of current attachment constructs are reviewed. Whereas J. Bowlby's (1969/1982) original theory focused on a biobehavioral safety-regulating system with the parent as the child's primary protector, current usage often encompasses much more, if not all, of the parent-child relationship. As a result, some of J. Bowlby's central ideas have not been adequately tested, and the unique contributions of the theory have been obscured. The authors argue that differentiating protection from general responsivity or good parenting has many advantages. Most important, it will enable researchers to test J. Bowlby's notion that parental protection has a singular role to play in socioemotional development and has implications for attachment assessment and interventions in clinical work with families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an ongoing need for literature that identifies the effects of broad contextual risk on school readiness outcomes via family mediating mechanisms. This is especially true amongst diverse and urban samples characterized by variability in immigration history. To address this limitation, family profiles of sociodemographic and contextual risk were identified when children were 2 months of age. Subsequently, their indirect effect on school readiness at 4.5 years was evaluated via family investments and maternal responsivity (N = 501 families). A latent class analysis yielded four distinct family risk profiles: low socioeconomic status (SES) multilevel risk, 12.0% of sample; maternal abuse history, 15.6%; low-SES immigrant risk, 27.7%; and low risk, 44.7%. Path analyses revealed that children in the low-SES multilevel risk and low-SES immigrant risk profiles had the poorest outcomes in all domains and these effects operated equally and indirectly via investments and responsivity. To date, several studies have suggested that sociodemographic risks impact cognitive outcomes primarily via the investment pathway. The present findings suggest that family relations are equally important when operationalized as observed responsive parenting. Furthermore, pathways of influence are similarly operative despite different patterning of adversity for high-risk immigrant and native born families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]