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Social skills are traditionally viewed as acquired through social environments including parenting. However, biopsychosocial models highlight the importance of genetic influences and gene-environment interactions (G×Es) in child development. Extant G×E investigations often fail to account for developmental changes in the phenotype or rigorously assess the social environment using observational measures. The present study prospectively assessed 110 children (44.5% female) and their parents to explore biologically plausible independent and interactive associations of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and observed positive and negative parenting in prediction of (a) initial levels of social skills at school entry (age 6 years) and (b) developmental changes in social skills across the early school years (ages 6-9 years). Overall, the SS (vs. SL/LL) 5-HTTLPR genotype inversely predicted social skills across all domains, although parenting behavior moderated these associations wherein putative G×E effects differed by developmental timing and social skills domain. Positive parenting positively predicted concurrent (age 6) overall social skills for children with SL/LL genotypes, but not the SS genotype. However, for the SS group only, age 6 positive parenting positively predicted prospective growth in social responsibility, although negative parenting positively predicted growth in social cooperation. Findings suggest that 5-HTTLPR may signal differential sensitivities to parenting styles and patterns of social development, which may help to inform targeted intervention approaches to enhance person-environment fit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Childhood maltreatment robustly predicts adolescent externalizing behaviors (EB; e.g., violence, delinquency, substance use) and may crystalize patterns of EB by influencing sensitivity to the social environment (e.g., parenting, friendships). In a nationally representative sample of 9,421 adolescents, we modeled latent growth curves of EB from age 13 to 32 years. Next, we explored whether maltreated youth differed from nonmaltreated youth in their sensitivity to parental closeness, friendship involvement, and polymorphisms from dopamine genes linked to EB (dopamine receptors D2 and D4, dopamine transporter). Overall, maltreated youth had significantly higher levels of EB across adolescence and adulthood; however, maltreated and nonmaltreated youth showed similar patterns of EB change over time: violent behavior decreased in adolescence before stabilizing in adulthood, whereas nonviolent delinquency and substance use increased in adolescence before decreasing in the transition to adulthood. Maltreatment reduced sensitivity to parental closeness and friendship involvement, although patterns varied based on type of EB outcome. Finally, none of the environmental effects on EB were significantly moderated by the dopamine polygenic risk score after accounting for multiple testing. These findings underline the enduring effects of early maltreatment and implicate that maltreatment may contribute to long-term risk for EB by influencing children's sensitivity to social relationship factors in adolescence.

Although ADHD and negative parenting are established predictors of youth outcomes, their independent and interactive effects on youth social functioning remain unclear. We tested childhood ADHD symptoms and negative parenting as independent and interactive predictors of prospective change in social problems across a four-year follow-up. At baseline, families of 221 (33% female) children with (n = 94) and without ADHD were rigorously assessed including observed positive and negative parenting behavior, youth ADHD symptoms, as well as multi-informant ratings of youth social problems at multiple occasions. Based on multiple regression with robust standard errors and full-information maximum likelihood procedures to address missing data, ADHD symptoms positively predicted social problems, even with control of observed parenting behavior, child age and sex, oppositional defiant disorder symptoms, and baseline social problems. Additionally, a child ADHD symptoms x negative parenting interaction uniquely predicted separate parent- and teacher-rated social problems where ADHD symptoms positively predicted social problems exclusively in the context of high (+1SD) and very high (+2 SD) negative parenting, respectively. When ADHD was separated into distinct dimensions (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity), an interaction between inattention symptoms and negative parenting approached significance such that inattention symptoms positively predicted parent-rated social problems in the context of high negative parenting. We discuss the interaction between parenting and ADHD symptoms in predictions of youth social problems and implications for intervention.

Although parenting behavior and friendship quality predict adolescent externalizing behaviors (EBs), individual differences in temperament may differentially affect susceptibility to these factors over time. In a multi-method and multi-informant study of 141 children followed prospectively from toddlerhood to adolescence, we tested the independent and interactive associations of age 3 reactive temperament (e.g., negative emotionality) and age 13 observed parenting (i.e., positive and negative behavior) and friendship (i.e., conflict and warmth), with multi-informant ratings of age 15 aggression and rule-breaking behavior. Negative parenting predicted growth in parent-rated EB, but only for adolescents with early reactive temperament. Temperament did not affect sensitivity to positive parenting or friendship. Results are discussed in the context of differential susceptibility theory and intervention implications for adolescents., (© 2018 Society for Research on Adolescence.)

Although gene × environment interactions contribute to youth attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, the pathways mediating these influences are unknown. We tested genetic moderation of indirect effects from parenting behavior to youth ADHD symptoms through multiple neurocognitive factors. Two hundred and twenty-nine youth with and without ADHD were assessed at baseline (Wave 1; ages 5-10) and at a 2-year follow-up (Wave 2; ages 7-13). At Wave 1, youth completed a neurocognitive battery including measures of response inhibition, visuospatial working memory, and fluid reasoning, and a standardized parent-child interaction task yielding observational measures of positive and negative parenting. At Wave 2, youth psychopathology was rated by parents and teachers using multiple methods (i.e., structured interview, rating scale). We employed moderated multiple mediation and compared conditional indirect effects across youth genotypes at two biologically plausible genetic loci. Controlling for parent ADHD symptoms as well as youth demographic factors and co-occurring externalizing symptoms, these genetic factors moderated the indirect effect from Wave 1 parenting to multi-method/informant Wave 2 ADHD symptoms through Wave 1 neurocognitive functioning. This preliminary study is the first to identify genetic moderation of mediated effects underlying ADHD symptoms and suggests that specific gene × parenting interactions may underlie neurocognitive functioning deficits and subsequent ADHD.

Although harsh parenting and peer rejection are independently associated with childhood conduct problems (CP), these patterns are often informant specific, suggesting that their associations across contexts (i.e., home and school) should be considered. In a sample of 142 children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; ages 5-10; 66% male), we used structural equation modeling to evaluate the structure of multi-informant (parent, teacher) and multimethod (semi-structured interview, questionnaire) rated aggressive, rule-breaking, and oppositional behavior. Next, we explored context-specific associations by modeling harsh parenting and peer rejection as simultaneous and independent predictors of home and school CP. We observed several key findings: (a) the structure of parent- and teacher-reported CP was best accounted by context-specific CP (i.e., home vs. school) and a second-order general CP factor; (b) harsh punishment and peer rejection each independently predicted the second-order general CP factor; and (c) peer rejection was uniquely associated with school CP, whereas harsh punishment was associated only with the second-order general CP factor and did not exhibit specificity with home CP. Whereas harsh parenting and peer rejection were each independently associated with generalized CP, peer rejection showed an additional, unique context-specific association with CP exclusively expressed at school. We discuss potential explanatory mechanisms underlying context-specific associations of CP, as well as address etiological and clinical implications for understanding informant-discrepancies in CP.

Individual differences in emotion regulation are central to social, academic, occupational, and psychological development, and emotion dysregulation (ED) in childhood is a risk factor for numerous developmental outcomes. The present study aimed to (a) describe the developmental trajectory of ED across early childhood (3-6 years) and (b) examine its sensitivity to youth serotonin transporter genotype, positive and negative parenting behaviors, and their interaction. Participants were 99 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of children with or without developmental delays. Child ED and early parenting were coded from parent-child interactions. To examine serotonin transporter genotype as a moderator between parenting and child emotion dysregulation (ED), children with the homozygous short (SS) genotype were compared to children with the homozygous long (LL) or heterozygous (SL) genotype. We used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to model yearly change in ED from child age 3 to 6 years. LGCM revealed that ED decreased overall across early childhood. In addition, we observed separate Genotype × Positive and Genotype × Negative parenting behavior interactions in predictions of ED growth curves. Children with the SL/LL genotype had ED trajectories that were minimally related to positive and negative parenting behavior, whereas ED decreased more precipitously among children with the SS genotype when exposed to low negative parenting or high positive parenting. These findings provide evidence for Gene × Environment interactions (G×Es) in the development of ED in a manner that is conceptually consistent with vantage sensitivity, and they improve inferences afforded by prospective designs.

Using multiple mediation with bootstrapping, dimensions of executive functioning (i.e., inhibitory control, working memory, set shifting) were tested as mediators of predictions of academic and social outcomes from observed positive and negative parenting in 131 children followed prospectively into early adolescence. Inhibitory control and working memory mediated predictions of academic achievement, whereas inhibitory control meditated predictions of school competence from positive parenting. Additionally, working memory mediated predictions of negative social preference, but not social competence, from positive parenting. Executive functioning did not mediate predictions from negative parenting. The role of parenting in shaping youth outcomes through executive functioning is considered.

The serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is associated with caregiving in nonhuman animals and with affective and cognitive correlates of human parenting, yet its association with human parenting is largely unknown. Using a well-characterized sample of parents and offspring, we evaluated the association of parental 5-HTTLPR with observed positive and negative parenting behavior, as well as its biologically plausible moderation of child-related stress and disruptive child behavior as predictors of parenting. One hundred and sixty-two parents (86% mothers) and their 6- to 9-year-old children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder were ascertained using multiple methods including structured interviews, rating scales, and observed parent-child interaction, yielding strong measures of key constructs. Controlling for multiple youth-level (e.g., sex, 5-HTTLPR genotype, disruptive behavior) and parent-level (e.g., demographics, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) factors, parents with an S allele exhibited significantly less observed positive parenting than those with the LL genotype. Significant Gene × Environment interactions were also observed: Child-related stress was negatively associated with observed parental negativity among SS/SL genotype parents but not LL genotype parents; next, observed disruptive child behavior was positively associated with parental negativity for both genotypes, but the effect was strongest in SS/SL parents. These preliminary findings suggest that parental 5-HTTLPR is uniquely associated with positive and negative parenting behavior, with more specific patterns according to child-related stress and disruptive child behavior. We consider implications for future research evaluating genetic influences on parenting as well as considerations for designing and delivering parenting-based interventions.

Although parental attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a risk factor for multiple negative youth outcomes, it is unknown how change in parental ADHD symptoms over time affects change in child ADHD symptoms; moreover, mediators of these predictions are largely unknown. Parents of 230 5-10 year-old children (68 % male) with (n = 120) and without ADHD (n = 110) were followed prospectively for 6-7 years across three separate waves. Parents self-reported their ADHD and depression symptoms and similarly rated offspring ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) symptoms; youth self-reported their substance use. Temporally-ordered mediators consisted of parental expressed emotion (EE), derived from the Five Minute Speech Sample, and self-reported positive and negative parenting behavior. Controlling for key demographics and parental depression symptoms, increasing parental ADHD symptoms were a time-varying predictor of worsening youth ADHD and ODD, although it was unrelated to change in CD and alcohol/substance use. Next, although EE facets (i.e., criticism, emotional over-involvement) did not mediate these predictions, negative parenting behavior significantly mediated predictions of youth ADHD (and marginally in predictions of ODD) from parental ADHD symptoms. These quasi-experimental findings suggest that parental ADHD symptoms are a potential unique causal risk factor for offspring ADHD and ODD; also, preventing negative parenting behavior secondary to parental ADHD symptoms is critical to improve trajectories of youth ADHD and ODD. We consider parental ADHD symptoms and family factors underlying emergent externalizing problems utilizing a developmental psychopathology framework, including implications for intervention and prevention.

Although there are likely to be multiple mechanisms underlying parent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms as a key risk factor for offspring ADHD, potential explanatory factors have yet to be reliably identified. Given that parent ADHD symptoms independently predict parenting behavior and child ADHD symptoms, we tested whether individual differences in multiple dimensions of positive and negative parenting behavior (i.e., corporal punishment, inconsistent discipline, positive parenting behavior, observed negative talk, and observed praise) mediated the association between parental and offspring ADHD. We used a prospective design that featured predictors (i.e., parent ADHD symptoms) and mediators (i.e., parenting behavior) that temporally preceded the outcome (i.e., offspring ADHD symptoms). Using a well-characterized sample of 120 children with and without ADHD (ages 5-10 at Wave 1, 7-12 at Wave 2) and their biological parents, we examined multimethod (i.e., observed, self-report) measures of positive and negative parenting behavior as simultaneous mediators of the association of Wave 1 parent and Wave 2 offspring ADHD symptoms. Using a multiple mediation framework, consisting of rigorous bootstrapping procedures and controlling for parent depression, child's baseline ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder, and child's age, corporal punishment significantly and uniquely mediated the association of Wave 1 parent ADHD symptoms and Wave 2 offspring ADHD. We consider the role of parenting behavior in the intergenerational transmission of ADHD as well as implications of these findings for the intervention and prevention of childhood ADHD.

Although negative parenting behavior and peer status are independently associated with childhood conduct problems (e.g., oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)), relatively little is known about their interplay, particularly in relation to differentiated measures of positive and negative peer regard. To improve the specificity of the association of negative parenting behavior and peer factors with ODD, we explored the potential interaction of parenting and peer status in a sample of 169 five-to ten-year-old ethnically diverse children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) assessed using multiple measures (i.e., rating scales, interview) and informants (i.e., parents, teachers). Controlling for children's age, sex, number of ADHD symptoms, and parents' race-ethnicity, peer acceptance inversely predicted and inconsistent discipline, harsh punishment, and peer rejection were each positively associated with ODD symptom severity. Interactive influences were also evident such that inconsistent discipline and harsh punishment each predicted elevated ODD but only among children experiencing low peer acceptance or high peer rejection. These findings suggest that supportive environments, including peer acceptance, may protect children from negative outcomes associated with inconsistent discipline and harsh punishment. Findings are integrated with theories of social support, and we additionally consider implications for intervention and prevention., (© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Emerging evidence suggests that some individuals may be simultaneously more responsive to the effects from environmental adversity and enrichment (i.e., differential susceptibility). Given that parenting behavior and a variable number tandem repeat polymorphism in the 3'untranslated region of the dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene are each independently associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), our goal was to evaluate the potential interactive effects of child DAT1 genotype with positive and negative parenting behaviors on childhood ADHD. We recruited an ethnically diverse sample of 150 six- to nine-year-old boys and girls with and without ADHD. Children were genotyped for a common polymorphism of the DAT1 gene, and objective counts of observed parenting behavior (i.e., negativity and praise) were obtained from a valid parent-child interaction task. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the interactive effects of DAT1 and observed parenting with a latent ADHD factor. We detected a significant interaction between observed praise and child DAT1 (coded additively), which suggested that praise was associated with increased ADHD, but only among youth with the 9/10 genotype. In addition, a marginally significant interaction between DAT1 (coded additively and recessively) and observed negativity emerged for ADHD, such that negativity was positively associated with ADHD but only for youth with the 9/9 genotype. Although differential susceptibility theory was not fully supported, these preliminary results suggest that interactive exchanges between parenting behavior and child genotype potentially contribute to the development of ADHD. Clinical implications for interactions between parenting behavior and child genotype are discussed.

Although multiple dimensions of negative parenting behavior are associated with childhood conduct problems (CP), there is relatively little research on whether the association is equally robust in boys and girls. To improve the specificity of current models of negative parenting and offspring CP, we explored the potential moderating role of child sex in a sample of 179 5- to 10-year-old ethnically diverse boys and girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were assessed using multiple methods (i.e., rating scales, semistructured interviews) and informants (i.e., parents, teachers). Controlling for children's age, race-ethnicity, and ADHD diagnostic status (i.e., ADHD vs. non-ADHD), inconsistent discipline was positively associated with offspring aggression and rule-breaking behavior, whereas harsh punishment was positively associated with aggression, rule-breaking behavior, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Furthermore, child sex significantly moderated the association of inconsistent discipline and aggression and rule-breaking behavior, such that inconsistent discipline was positively associated with CP for boys, but not for girls. Given the centrality of negative parenting to theories of and efficacious interventions for aggression and CP, we discuss these findings within a developmental psychopathology framework and consider their implications for intervention., (© 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Relatively little is known about the potential interplay between genetic and environmental influences on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), including gene-environment interaction (G×E). There is evidence that parenting behavior interacts with offspring genotype in the development of externalizing problems, but studies have largely focused on explicit maltreatment rather than differentiated measures of parenting behavior, including positive and negative parenting. We tested the interactive effects of the 30-base pair variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism of the monoamine oxidase A gene (MAO-A) with positive and negative parenting behavior on parent- and teacher ratings of inattention and hyperactivity symptoms among 150 6-9 year-old boys with and without ADHD. Negative parenting predicted parent and teacher ratings of inattention symptoms, but only among boys with high-activity MAO-A genotype. MAO-A genotype did not moderate the association of positive parenting and parent- and teacher ratings of ADHD. We discuss the potential role of interactive exchanges between parenting behavior and child genotype in the development and persistence of ADHD and related behavior problems.

Mounting evidence suggests that genetic risks for mental disorders often interact with the social environment, but most studies still ignore environmental moderation of genetic influences. The authors tested interactions between maternal parenting and the variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism in the 3' untranslated region of the dopamine transporter gene in the child to increase understanding of gene-environment interactions involving early parenting. Participants were part of a 9-year longitudinal study of 4- to 6-year-old children who met criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and demographically matched controls. Maternal parenting was observed during standard mother-child interactions in Wave 1. The child's conduct disorder (CD) symptoms 5-8 years later were measured using separate structured diagnostic interviews of the mother and youth. Controlling for ADHD symptoms and child disruptive behavior during the mother-child interaction, there was a significant inverse relation between levels of both positive and negative parenting at 4-6 years and the number of later CD symptoms, but primarily among children with 2 copies of the 9-repeat allele of the VNTR. The significant interaction with negative parenting was replicated in parent and youth reports of CD symptoms separately., ((c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved.)

Although ADHD and negative parenting are established predictors of youth outcomes, their independent and interactive effects on youth social functioning remain unclear. We tested childhood ADHD symptoms and negative parenting as independent and interactive predictors of prospective change in social problems across a four-year follow-up. At baseline, families of 221 (33% female) children with (n = 94) and without ADHD were rigorously assessed including observed positive and negative parenting behavior, youth ADHD symptoms, as well as multi-informant ratings of youth social problems at multiple occasions. Based on multiple regression with robust standard errors and full-information maximum likelihood procedures to address missing data, ADHD symptoms positively predicted social problems, even with control of observed parenting behavior, child age and sex, oppositional defiant disorder symptoms, and baseline social problems. Additionally, a child ADHD symptoms x negative parenting interaction uniquely predicted separate parent- and teacher-rated social problems where ADHD symptoms positively predicted social problems exclusively in the context of high (+1SD) and very high (+2 SD) negative parenting, respectively. When ADHD was separated into distinct dimensions (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity), an interaction between inattention symptoms and negative parenting approached significance such that inattention symptoms positively predicted parent-rated social problems in the context of high negative parenting. We discuss the interaction between parenting and ADHD symptoms in predictions of youth social problems and implications for intervention.

Given that noncompliance is the most common externalizing problem during middle childhood and reliably predicts significant conduct problems, innovations in elucidating its etiology are sorely needed. Evaluation of in-the-moment antecedents and consequences of child noncompliance improves traction on this goal, given that multiple theories contend that child noncompliance and parent behavior mutually influence each other through negative reciprocation as well as contingent praise processes. Among a sample of 140 families (child age: 6–10 years; 32.1% female), the present study capitalized on intensive repeated measures of observed child noncompliance and parent negative talk and praise objectively coded during three unique tasks. We employed dynamic structural equation modeling to evaluate within-dyad parent–child behavioral dynamics and between-dyad differences therein. Results provided mixed support for hypotheses and suggested that antecedents and consequences of child noncompliance differed according to task demands and child ADHD symptoms. Contrary to models of coercive cycles, during child-led play, parent negative talk was more likely following prior child noncompliance, but child noncompliance was less likely following prior parent negative talk. As expected, during parent-led play, parent praise was less likely following prior child noncompliance, which was also less likely following prior parent praise. Relative to youth with fewer symptoms, for children with elevated ADHD symptoms, during a challenging clean-up task, child noncompliance was less stable and less contingent on prior parent negative talk. Results are discussed in terms of their implications of real-time parent–child interactions for typical and atypical development of externalizing problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its transdiagnostic significance, there is modest evidence with respect to the predictive validity of childhood irritability, especially across developmental periods; similarly, little is known about explanatory factors underlying these predictions. This study had two goals: (1) to test the predictive validity of childhood irritability with respect to adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems, controlling for baseline ADHD and related psychopathology and (2) to test theoretically-derived family (i.e., parenting behavior, parenting stress) and social (i.e., peer status, social skills) constructs as explanatory factors of adolescent psychopathology. Two hundred thirty ethnically diverse (51.5% White) 5–10-year-old youth (32% female) with (n = 121) and without (n = 110) ADHD completed three separate laboratory-based assessments across six to seven years. Temporally-ordered predictors, putative mediators, and psychopathology outcomes were assessed using multiple informants (i.e., parent, teacher, youth) and methods (i.e., structured interviews, normed rating scales). Controlling for demographic factors, clinical correlates, and baseline psychopathology, childhood irritability uniquely predicted adolescent externalizing problems, but not internalizing problems. Next, analyses revealed that low social skills partially explained predictions of adolescent internalizing problems. However, family or social factors did not underlie predictions of adolescent externalizing problems. These preliminary findings support the predictive validity of childhood irritability with respect to early adolescent externalizing problems and implicate low social skills as a potentially unique mediator of internalizing outcomes. Intervention-induced improvements in social skills may minimize emergent psychopathology initiated by significant childhood irritability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging research suggests that caregiving environments and genetic variants independently contribute to social functioning in children with typical development or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, biologically plausible interactive models and complimentary assessment of mechanisms are needed to: (a) explain considerable social heterogeneity, (b) resolve inconsistencies in the literature, and (c) develop and select optimal treatments based on individual differences. This study examined the role of child genotypes and responsive parenting in the social development of 104 children with ASD (ages 4–7 years). We utilized a longitudinal, multi‐informant design and structural equation models to evaluate: (a) the additive and interactive effects of biologically plausible candidate genes (5‐HTTLPR, OXTR, DRD4) and responsive parenting in predicting prospective social development in ASD across three time points spanning 1.5 years, and (b) whether child emotion regulation mediated observed gene x environment interactions (GxEs). Responsive parenting positively predicted prospective change in child social skills; these associations were moderated by 5‐HTTLPR and DRD4 in teacher‐report models, and DRD4 in parent‐report models. No GxE effects were found for OXTR. Emotion regulation did not significantly mediate the GxEs involving 5‐HTTLPR and DRD4. Acknowledging the complexities of GxE research, implications for future research, and targeted intervention efforts are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although positive parenting behavior is central to efficacious interventions for child conduct problems (CP), studies of youth CP have focused mostly on negative parenting behavior. That is, few studies have examined dimensions of positive parenting behavior (e.g., positive reinforcement, involvement) as independent predictors of CP and even fewer have investigated their potential moderation by callous‐unemotional (CU) traits. A sample of 184 6–9 year‐old children with and without attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was followed prospectively for two years. Controlling for baseline ADHD diagnostic status, initial CP, and negative parenting (i.e., corporal punishment), we examined CU traits, positive reinforcement and involvement, and their interactions as predictors of two‐year change in CP. Positive reinforcement and CU traits independently predicted increased rule breaking behavior whereas parental involvement inversely predicted aggressive behavior. A significant positive reinforcement x CU traits interaction suggested that positive reinforcement predicted a decrease in aggressive behavior, but only in children with low CU traits; conversely, positively reinforcement marginally predicted increased aggressive behavior among children with high CU traits. No other significant parenting x CU traits interaction was observed. We consider these findings within a developmental psychopathology framework where interactive exchanges underlie the development of CP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including parenting, child psychology and child development.

Parental attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and depression are risk factors for negative child outcomes, but given their frequent co-occurrence and variability over time, developmentally sensitive studies are needed. To characterize change in parental ADHD and depression as predictors of change in child ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), 230 five- to ten-year-old children with (n = 110) and without (n = 120) ADHD were followed prospectively for 2 years with 90% retention. At baseline and again 2 years later (i.e., Wave 2), parents self-reported their ADHD and depression; parents and teachers also separately rated child ADHD and ODD, as well as broader attention and externalizing problems. Controlling for child sex, race-ethnicity, age, and parental depression, generalized estimating equations revealed that 2-year decreases in parental ADHD significantly predicted reduced child ADHD symptoms, but only among non-ADHD youth. Alternatively, increasing parental depression positively predicted change in teacher-rated ODD symptoms. These findings provide quasi-experimental evidence that parental ADHD and depression may be time-varying risk factors with respect to key dimensions of child externalizing behavior problems. We consider the potential dynamic and reciprocal interrelations among parental ADHD and depression with developmental change in offspring ADHD and ODD. We also discuss implications of parent psychopathology in the development of interventions to reduce the burden of youth ADHD and associated externalizing behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Well-validated models of maternal behavior in small-brain mammals posit a central role of oxytocin in parenting, by reducing stress and enhancing the reward value of social interactions with offspring. In contrast, human studies are only beginning to gain insights into how oxytocin modulates maternal behavior and affiliation. Methods: To explore associations between oxytocin receptor genes and maternal parenting behavior in humans, we conducted a genetic imaging study of women selected to exhibit a wide range of observed parenting when their children were 4-6 years old. Results: In response to child stimuli during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), hemodynamic responses in brain regions that mediate affect, reward, and social behavior were significantly correlated with observed positive parenting. Furthermore, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs53576 and rs1042778) in the gene encoding the oxytocin receptor were significantly associated with both positive parenting and hemodynamic responses to child stimuli in orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and hippocampus. Conclusions: These findings contribute to the emerging literature on the role of oxytocin in human social behavior and support the feasibility of tracing biological pathways from genes to neural regions to positive maternal parenting behaviors in humans using genetic imaging methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]