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Significant research has been carried out in the last decade to describe the CO2 system dynamics in the Baltic Sea. However, there is a lack of knowledge in this field in the NE Baltic Sea, which is the main focus of the present study. We analysed the physical forcing and hydrographic background in the study year (2018) and tried to elucidate the observed patterns of surface water CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) and methane concentrations (cCH4). Surface water pCO2 and cCH4 were calculated from continuous measurements during six monitoring cruises onboard R/V Salme, covering the Northern Baltic Proper (NBP), the Gulf of Finland (GoF) and the Gulf of Riga (GoR) and all seasons in 2018. The general seasonal pCO2 pattern showed oversaturation in autumn-winter and undersaturation in spring-summer in all three areas, but it locally reached the saturation level during the cruises in April, May and August in the GoR and in August in the GoF. cCH4 was oversaturated during the entire study period, and the seasonal course was not well exposed on the background of high variability. Surface water pCO2 and cCH4 distributions showed larger spatial variability in the GoR and GoF than in the NBP for all six cruises. We linked the observed local maxima to river bulges, coastal upwelling events, fronts, and occasions when vertical mixing reached the seabed in shallow areas. Seasonal averaging over the CO2 flux based on our data suggest a weak sink for atmospheric CO2 for all basins, but high variability and the long periods between cruises (temporal gaps in observation) preclude a clear statement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine biogeochemical models based on Redfield stoichiometry suffer from underestimating carbon fixation by primary production. The most pronounced indication of this is the overestimation of the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) concentration and, consequently, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in surface waters. The reduced production of organic carbon will impact most biogeochemical processes. We propose a marine biogeochemical model allowing for a non-Redfieldian carbon fixation. The updated model is able to reproduce observed partial pressure of carbon dioxide and other variables of the ecosystem, like nutrients and oxygen, reasonably well. The additional carbon uptake is realized in the model by an extracellular release (ER) of dissolved organic matter (DOM) from phytoplankton. Dissolved organic matter is subject to flocculation and the sinking particles remove carbon from surface waters. This approach is mechanistically different from existing non-Redfieldian models which allow for flexible elemental ratios for the living cells of the phytoplankton itself. The performance of the model is demonstrated as an example for the Baltic Sea. We have chosen this approach because of a reduced computational effort which is beneficial for large-scale and long-term model simulations. Budget estimates for carbon illustrate that the Baltic Sea acts as a carbon sink. For alkalinity, the Baltic Sea is a source due to internal alkalinity generation by denitrification. Owing to the underestimated model alkalinity, an unknown alkalinity source or underestimated land-based fluxes still exist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic matter production by cyanobacteria blooms is a major environmental concern for the Baltic Sea, as it promotes the spread of anoxic zones. Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (p CO2) measurements carried out on Ships of Opportunity (SOOP) since 2003 have proven to be a powerful tool to resolve the carbon dynamics of the blooms in space and time. However, SOOP measurements lack the possibility to directly constrain depth-integrated net community production (NCP) in moles of carbon per surface area due to their restriction to the sea surface. This study tackles the knowledge gap through (1) providing an NCP best guess for an individual cyanobacteria bloom based on repeated profiling measurements of p CO2 and (2) establishing an algorithm to accurately reconstruct depth-integrated NCP from surface p CO2 observations in combination with modelled temperature profiles. Goal (1) was achieved by deploying state-of-the-art sensor technology from a small-scale sailing vessel. The low-cost and flexible platform enabled observations covering an entire bloom event that occurred in July–August 2018 in the Eastern Gotland Sea. For the biogeochemical interpretation, recorded p CO2 profiles were converted to CT* , which is the dissolved inorganic carbon concentration normalised to alkalinity. We found that the investigated bloom event was dominated by Nodularia and had many biogeochemical characteristics in common with blooms in previous years. In particular, it lasted for about 3 weeks, caused a CT* drawdown of 90 µmolkg-1 , and was accompanied by a sea surface temperature increase of 10 ∘C. The novel finding of this study is the vertical extension of the CT* drawdown up to the compensation depth located at around 12 m. Integration of the CT* drawdown across this depth and correction for vertical fluxes leads to an NCP best guess of ∼1.2 molm-2 over the productive period. Addressing goal (2), we combined modelled hydrographical profiles with surface p CO2 observations recorded by SOOP Finnmaid within the study area. Introducing the temperature penetration depth (TPD) as a new parameter to integrate SOOP observations across depth, we achieve an NCP reconstruction that agrees to the best guess within 10 % , which is considerably better than the reconstruction based on a classical mixed-layer depth constraint. Applying the TPD approach to almost 2 decades of surface p CO2 observations available for the Baltic Sea bears the potential to provide new insights into the control and long-term trends of cyanobacteria NCP. This understanding is key for an effective design and monitoring of conservation measures aiming at a Good Environmental Status of the Baltic Sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The direction and magnitude of carbon dioxide exchange between the atmosphere and the sea is regulated by their difference in partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2). Typically, observations of pCO2 are carried out by using research vessels and voluntary observing ships which cannot easily detect the diurnal cycle of pCO2 at a given location. This study evaluates the magnitude and driving processes of the diurnal cycle of pCO2 in a coastal region of the Baltic Sea during the different seasons.We present pCO2 data from July 2018-June 2019 carried out in the vicinity of the island of Utö in the Archipelago Sea and quantify the relevant physical, biological and chemical processes affecting pCO2. The highest monthly median diurnal pCO2 peak-to-peak amplitude (31 µatm) was observed in August. This high diurnal variation was found to be related predominantly to biological processes. The biological transformations of carbon generated a sinusoidal diurnal pCO2 variation, with a maximum in the morning and a minimum in the afternoon. Compared to the biological carbon transformations, the effect of air sea exchange of carbon dioxide and the effect of temperature changes on pCO2 are smaller, with their monthly median peak-to-peak amplitudes were up to 12 and 5 µatm, respectively. Single diurnal peak-to-peak amplitudes can be significantly larger (up to 500 µatm), during upwelling. If the net exchange of carbon dioxide between the sea and atmosphere on our study site and sampling period is calculated based on a data set that consists of only one measurement per day, the error in the budget depends on the sampling time and can be up to ±12 %. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fully automated measurement system for recording of the surface water CO 2 partial pressure, pCO 2 , was deployed on VOS (voluntary observation ship) “Finnpartner/Finnmaid” in 2003. Since 2009, an amendment of the system also allows for the continuous detection of the surface water partial pressure of methane, pCH 4 . The ship commutes regularly at 2–3 day intervals between the Gulf of Finland (Helsinki) and the Mecklenburg Bight (Lübeck) in the southwest of the Baltic Sea. The pCO 2 data in the central Gotland Sea showed a pronounced seasonality that was mainly controlled by the biological production and decomposition of organic matter in combination with stratification/mixing of the water column. CO 2 consumption in spring/summer caused pCO 2 that were by up to 300 μatm below the atmospheric level. In contrast, the pCO 2 exceeded the atmospheric values during autumn/winter when deep mixing transports CO 2 -enriched water to the surface. To identify the central Baltic Sea as a sink or source for atmospheric CO 2 , an air–sea CO 2 gas exchange balance was established for three selected years (2005, 2008 and 2009). During each year the surface water acted as a net sink for atmospheric CO 2 with uptake rates ranging between 0.60 and 0.89 mol m − 2 yr − 1 . The rates correspond approximately to the enhanced carbon burial in sediments during the last century and suggest a link between eutrophication and CO 2 uptake. The data of the surface methane concentration are used to focus on situations were extraordinarily high methane concentrations were observed. Temporary methane peaks were observed south of the Island of Gotland, which could clearly be attributed to frequent upwelling events. Between spring 2012 and 2013, Finnmaid went at a few occasions to St. Petersburg in the east of the Gulf of Finland. Methane concentration of up to 130 nmol L − 1 where found close to the River Neva mouth but decreased rapidly to the west. The plume of methane-enriched waters was observed farthest to the west during the winter period. This was attributed to air–sea gas exchange that was most effective during summer but inhibited during winter because of the ice coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The surface water CO2 partial pressure, pCO2, was measured during nine cruises in the Gulf of Bothnia at different seasons between 1999 and 2010, with continuous recording during most of the cruises using a bubble-type equilibrator and infrared CO2 detection. The data were used to construct the mean seasonality of the pCO2 in characteristic sub-areas. The low pCO2 measured in spring/summer and the high pCO2 measured in fall/winter indicated that biological production, stratification, mineralization and deep mixing, controlled the seasonal pCO2 cycle in both the Bothnian Bay and the Bothnian Sea. To calculate CO2 exchange with the atmosphere, the gas exchange transfer velocity was computed as a function of wind speed according to . Based on the mean seasonal pCO2 distribution, CO2 fluxes were calculated, taking into account the differing wind conditions and the varying ice coverage. The resulting mean annual flux of +140mmolm−2 yr−1 in the Bothnian Bay indicated that this area is a weak source for atmospheric CO2. In contrast, the Bothnian Sea was found to act as a sink for atmospheric CO2, with a mean flux of −730mmolm−2 yr−1. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]