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Contextual interference is an established phenomenon in learning research; random practice schedules are associated with poorer performance, but superior learning, compared with blocked practice schedules. We present a secondary analysis of N = 84 healthy young adults, replicating the contextual interference effect in a time estimation task. We used the determinant of a correlation matrix to measure the amount of order in participant responses. We calculated this determinant in different phase spaces: trial space, the determinant of the previous five trials (lagged constant error 0-4); and target space, the determinant of the previous five trials of the same target. In trial space, there was no significant difference between groups (p = 0.98) and no Group × Lag interaction (p = 0.54), although there was an effect of Lag (p < 0.01). In target space, there were effects of Group (p = 0.02), Lag (p < 0.01), and a Group × Lag interaction (p = 0.03). Ultimately, randomly scheduled practice was associated with adaptive corrections but positive correlations between errors from trial to trial (e.g., overshoots followed by smaller overshoots). Blocked practice was associated with more adaptive corrections but uncorrelated responses. Our findings suggest that random practice leads to the retrieval and updating of the target from memory, facilitating long-term retention and transfer.

The expert performance approach, initially proposed by Ericsson and Smith (1991), is reviewed as a systematic framework for the study of "expert" learning. The need to develop representative tasks to capture learning is discussed, as is the need to employ process-tracing measures during acquisition to examine what actually changes during learning. We recommend the use of realistic retention and transfer tests to infer what has been learned, so that the effects of various interventions on learning may be evaluated. A focus on individual differences in learning within groups of expert performers is considered as a way to identify the characteristics of more efficient and effective learners. The identification and study of expert (or good) learners will enhance our understanding of skill acquisition and how this may be promoted using instructional interventions and practice opportunities. Although these ideas are predicated on our research on perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport, we argue that they have general merit beyond this domain. The challenge for scientists is to generate new knowledge that helps those involved in developing learners who can acquire and refine skills more efficiently and effectively across professional domains.

Geographical regions possess distinct sporting cultures that can influence athletic development from a young age. The United States (US) and Austria both produce elite alpine ski racers, yet have distinct sport structures (i.e., funding, skiing prominence). In this exploratory study, we investigated sport outcomes and psychological profiles in adolescent alpine ski racers attending skill development academies in the US (N= 169) and Austria (N= 209). Sport participation and psychological questionnaires (mental toughness, perfectionism, grit, coping, burnout) were administered to athletes. In Austria, athletes participated in fewer extracurricular sports, began competing and training younger, and accumulated less practice hours than athletes in the US. Athletes in the US reported greater burnout than athletes in Austria. Finally, in the US, women accumulated more practice hours and experienced more parental pressure than men, while men accumulated more practice hours in Austria. Austria's skiing-centric sport culture may encourage athletes to fully immerse into the sport, contributing to positive psychological outcomes. Reduced sport opportunities in the US beyond educational institutions may pressure athletes to practice more to ensure continued competitive skiing. Stressors for sport participation will be unique to gender in each country though, given their implicit gender stigmas for sport participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relative age effect (RAE), a phenomenon where relatively older athletes in a selection year are overrepresented, has been evidenced across different sports and age-levels. No published reports have assessed if the RAE influences practice time for relatively younger athletes, which could contribute to sport success. In this study, we compared patterns for performance and sport engagement between earlier-born and later-born adolescent alpine ski racers from Austria (AUT) and the United States (US). We assessed birth quarter distribution and performance trends using a performance (FIS) database (US: N = 2172; AUT: N = 516), and sport engagement through administering a practice history questionnaire to athletes attending ski academies/boarding schools (US: N = 169; AUT: N = 209). Chi-square analyses revealed an underrepresentation of athletes born later in both samples. Mixed regressions only showed performance improvements for later-born US ski racers. Relatively younger athletes in Austria engaged in more individual and group practice over time, while no clear practice patterns emerged for US ski racers. Results suggest that later-born ski racers in Austria need to practice more to bridge skill/performance gaps with their relatively older peers. Additionally, later-born ski racers who do not put in extra practice may be deselected. Practice time may be less pivotal for relatively younger ski racers in the US due to less strict talent filtration systems. Coaches can ameliorate the RAE by dedicating more attention during practice towards developing relatively younger athletes who are transiently overshadowed by older, higher-performing athletes. • The relative age effect was evident in both alpine ski racing samples. • Performance improvements in later-born ski racers were only evident in the US. • Later-born Austrian ski racers engaged in more practice throughout development. • Coaches should dedicate more attention to athletes with age-related disadvantages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]