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Dietary exposure of the Tunisian adult population to pesticide residue was assessed using the Total Diet Study method. In the present study 170 pesticides were searched for in 42 aggregated foods characterised by 64 food samples representing the Tunisian diet. All the food samples were collected, prepared, and analysed for remains of pesticides including organochlorine, organophosphorous, carbamates and pyrethroids. The GC-MS analysis and the LC-MS/MS analysis and some other specific analytical methods were employed for the quantification of the pesticide residues in the food samples. Results revealed that21pesticides reached amounts greater than the LOQ(12.3%) and 149 pesticides reached amounts below the LOD (88%).For the 21 pesticides quantified, the ADI was not exceeded. For the 149 non-quantified pesticides, an interval defined by the lower and upper bounds was defined to assess the dietary exposure of the Tunisian adult population to those pesticides. We conclude that 8 pesticides theoretically exceed the ADI with the 95 th percentile of exposure, those are: Diféthialone, Brodifacoum, Bromadiolone, Glufosinate, Heptachlor, Dieldrin Aldrin Oxydemeton-methyl. This study concludes that there is a low dietary exposure to pesticide residue of the Tunisian adult population. In fact, all the cases where the ADI was exceeded were theoretical due to the lower ADI value used.

A total diet study (TDS) was undertaken to estimate the chronic dietary exposure to pesticide residues and health risks for the French infants and young children below 3 years old. As a whole, 516 pesticides and metabolites were analysed in 309 food composite samples including 219 manufactured baby foods and 90 common foods, which cover 97% of infants and young children's diet. These composite samples were prepared using 5,484 food products purchased during all seasons from 2011 to 2012 and processed as consumed. Pesticide residues were detected in 67% of the samples and quantified in 27% of the baby food samples and in 60% of the common foods. Seventy-eight different pesticides were detected and 37 of these quantified at levels ranging from 0.02 to 594 µg/kg. The most frequently detected pesticides (greater than 5% samples) were (1) the fungicides 2-phenylphenol, azoxystrobin, boscalid, captan and its metabolite tetrahydrophthalimide, carbendazim, cyprodinil, difenoconazole, dodine, imazalil, metalaxyl, tebuconazole, thiabendazole, (2) the insecticides acetamiprid, pirimiphos-methyl and thiacloprid, (3) the herbicide metribuzin and (4) the synergist piperonyl butoxide. Dietary intakes were estimated for each of the 705 individuals studied and for 431 pesticides incl. 281 with a toxicological reference value (TRV). In the lower-bound scenario, which tends to underestimate the exposure, the TRV were never exceeded. In the upper-bound scenario that overestimates exposure, the estimated intakes exceeded the TRV for dieldrin and lindane (two persistent organic pollutants) and propylene thiourea, a metabolite of propineb. For these three substances, more sensitive analyses are needed to refine the assessment. For 17 other detected and/or prioritised pesticides, the risk could not be characterised due to the lack of a valid TRV, of certain food analyses or the absence of analytical standards for their metabolites., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Risk assessments for pesticide and veterinary drug residues in food are performed respectively by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The models used by the two Committees to assess chronic dietary exposure are based on different data and assumptions which may be confusing, particularly for risk managers, when the same compound is used to treat plants and animals. This publication details the results of combined chronic dietary exposure assessments for eight compounds used both as pesticide and veterinary drugs. It compares the results from models in use by JMPR and JECFA with those from national estimates performed by 17 countries. Results show that the JECFA model is better reflecting less than lifetime dietary exposure by considering consumption of children and high consumers. The JMPR model is a suitable model for estimating average chronic (lifetime) exposure to residues present in widely and regularly consumed staple commodities. However, it is suitable neither for estimating children's exposure nor more generally for assessing less than lifetime dietary exposure. In order to select the appropriate exposure model related to the occurrence of adverse effects i.e. effects occurring over less-than-lifetime or effects occurring only over lifetime, this paper proposes criteria to match the toxicological profile of the compound and the appropriate exposure scenarios. These approaches will continue to be harmonized to ensure the most scientifically sound basis for the risk assessment for pesticides and veterinary drug residues and consequently for other chemicals in food.

The identification of the major associations of pesticides to which the population is exposed is the first step for the risk assessment of mixtures. Moreover, the interpretation of the mixtures through the individuals' diet and the characterization of potentially high-risk populations constitute a useful tool for risk management. This paper proposes a method based on Non-Negative Matrix Factorization which allows the identification of the major mixtures to which the French population is exposed and the connection between this exposure and the diet. Exposure data of the French population are provided by the Second French Total Diet Study. The NMF is implemented on consumption data to extract consumption systems which are combined with the residue levels to link dietary behavior with exposure to mixtures of pesticides. A clustering of the individuals is achieved in order to highlight clusters of individuals with similar exposure to pesticides/consumption habits. The model provides 6 main consumption systems, 6 associated mixtures of pesticides and the description of the population which is most exposed to each mixture. Two different ways to estimate the matrix providing the mixtures of pesticides to which the population is exposed are suggested. Their advantages in different contexts of risk assessment are discussed., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Chronic dietary exposure to pesticide residues was assessed for the French population using a total diet study (TDS) to take into account realistic levels in foods as consumed at home (table-ready). Three hundred and twenty-five pesticides and their transformation products, grouped into 283 pesticides according to their residue definition, were sought in 1235 composite samples corresponding to 194 individual food items that cover 90% of the adult and child diet. To make up the composite samples, about 19,000 food products were bought during different seasons from 2007 to 2009 in 36 French cities and prepared according to the food preparation practices recorded in the individual and national consumption survey (INCA2). The results showed that 37% of the samples contained one or more residues. Seventy-three pesticides were detected and 55 quantified at levels ranging from 0.003 to 8.7mg/kg. The most frequently detected pesticides, identified as monitoring priorities in 2006, were the post-harvest insecticides pirimiphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos-methyl-particularly in wheat-based products-together with chlorpyrifos, iprodione, carbendazim and imazalil, mainly in fruit and fruit juices. Dietary intakes were estimated for each subject of INCA2 survey, under two contamination scenarios to handle left-censored data: lower-bound scenario (LB) where undetected results were set to zero, and upper-bound (UB) scenario where undetected results were set to the detection limit. For 90% of the pesticides, exposure levels were below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) under the two scenarios. Under the LB scenario, which tends to underestimate exposure levels, only dimethoate intakes exceeded the ADI for high level consumers of cherry (0.6% of children and 0.4% of adults). This pesticide, authorised in Europe, and its metabolite were detected in both cherries and endives. Under the UB scenario, that overestimates exposure, a chronic risk could not be excluded for nine other pesticides (dithiocarbamates, ethoprophos, carbofuran, diazinon, methamidophos, disulfoton, dieldrin, endrin and heptachlor). For these pesticides, more sensitive analyses of the main food contributors are needed in order to refine exposure assessment., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Chlordecone is an organochlorine insecticide used in the French West Indies until 1993. Toddlers are expected to be differently exposed than older children and adults. The dietary exposure to chlordecone of 18-month-old Guadeloupian toddlers was assessed through different scenarios depending on whether the subjects live on a soil-contaminated place or not and on their supply habits. Food contamination data came from the RESO study performed in 2005-2006. Consumption data derived from a dietary survey conducted in 2005-2008. Results were compared to those of other age groups. Chronic dietary exposures to chlordecone were estimated in a range of 0.018-0.051 μg/kg bw/day (P95: 0.044-0.096) for toddlers living in a non contaminated area and between 0.045-0.078 μg/kg bw/day (P95: 0.110-0.144) for toddlers living in a contaminated area. The probability of exceeding the chronic health-based value of 0.5 μg/kg bw/day was null. These results suggest that 18-month-old toddlers are less exposed than groups aged over 3 years old. This can be explained by their consumption pattern mostly based on milk and fruits, which are not highly contaminated by chlordecone. The acute health-based value of 10 μg/kg bw/day could be exceeded when consuming of highly contaminated taros, showing the importance of regulatory maximum limit., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A method has been developed to identify pesticide residues and foodstuffs for inclusion in national monitoring programs with different priority levels. It combines two chronic dietary intake indicators: ATMDI based on maximum residue levels and agricultural uses, and EDI on food contamination data. The mean and 95th percentile of exposure were calculated for 490 substances using individual and national consumption data. The results show that mean ATMDI exceeds the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for 10% of the pesticides, and the mean upper-bound EDI is above the ADI for 1.8% of substances. A seven-level risk scale is presented for substances already analyzed in food in France and substances not currently sought. Of 336 substances analyzed, 70 pesticides of concern (levels 2-5) should be particularly monitored, 22 of which are priority pesticides (levels 4 and 5). Of 154 substances not sought, 36 pesticides of concern (levels 2-4) should be included in monitoring programs, including 8 priority pesticides (level 4). In order to refine exposure assessment, analytical improvements and developments are needed to lower the analytical limits for priority pesticide/commodity combinations. Developed nationally, this method could be applied at different geographic scales., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study aims to compare the pesticide residue dietary intake of the French general population and the vegetarian population, separated into five specific diets: omnivorous (OMN), lacto-vegetarian (LV), ovo-lacto-vegetarian (OLV), pesco-lacto-vegetarian (PLV) and vegan (VG). Theoretical Maximum Daily Intakes (TMDIs) based on Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) were calculated as a percentage of the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). Among the 421 pesticides studied, only 48 had TMDI above ADI for at least one population subgroup. An excessive exposure was noticed for 44, 43, 42, 41 and 30 pesticides in the OLV, VG, OMN, LV and PLV groups, respectively, versus 29 in the general population. Meat and egg products consumption was responsible for higher intakes of organochlorine pesticides in the general population than in the vegetarian population (TMDI = 348% versus 146-183% ADI for aldrin). However, as the limited consumption of animal-origin commodities was largely offset by a higher fruit, vegetable and cereal intake in the vegetarian diets, vegetarians appear to be preferentially exposed to pesticides, for which fruit, vegetables and cereals are the main contributors, such as tri-allate, chlorpyrifos-methyl and diazinon. This study illustrates that consumption habits have a real impact on pesticide exposure in terms of intake levels, number and type of pesticides, representing a potential risk of dietary exposure. Except for organochlorine compounds, the vegetarian population may be more exposed to pesticide residues than the general population due to specific dietary habits. Thus, this population should be considered for risk assessment of pesticide residues.

The aim of this study is to develop a new indicator of pesticide dietary intake to screen pesticides to include in monitoring programs. This new indicator called the adjusted TMDI (TMDI_Ad), taking account actual pesticide agricultural uses in France, is more precise than the theoretical maximum dietary intake (TMDI), based on maximum residue levels (MRLs) that is usually used. This new modeling of dietary intake is refined according to actual agricultural pesticide uses on 44 raw agricultural commodities (RAC), among the most consumed in France, and the rate of food importation of these RAC. The TMDI_Ad was below the TMDI for 322 pesticides (79%). The TMDI was above the ADI, for 46 substances. Although 43 of them had a TMDI_Ad below the TMDI, still 36 had a TMDI_Ad above the ADI, which corresponded to substances with the lowest ADIs. Overall, these results indicate that the TMDI_Ad is a useful tool to plan monitoring programs and to refine dietary exposure, according to actual pesticide uses. However, for very toxic substances, having a very low ADI, such as unauthorized substances, other studies have to be conducted in order to better estimate consumer dietary intakes.

Dietary exposure to pesticide residues was assessed in Yaoundé, Cameroon, using the total diet study (TDS) method. Sixty-three composite samples, representative of the foods as consumed in Yaoundé, were collected, prepared, and analysed for residues of pesticides including organochlorine, organophosphorous, and pyrethroids. A multi-residue method was used with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.005 mg kg(-1). Additional analyses were performed for dithiocarbamates (LOD=0.050 mg kg(-1)), glyphosate (LOD=0.005 mg kg(-1)) and chlordecone (LOD=0.0008 mg kg(-1)) on certain composites samples. The overall contamination was low with 37 out of 46 pesticides below the LOD in all samples. The estimated upper bound (for values less than the LOD equal the LOD; and values less than the LOQ equal the LOQ) of the mean dietary exposures ranged from 0.24% (cypermethrin) to 3.03% (pirimiphos-methyl) of the acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) for pesticides for which at least one analysis was greater than the LOD. This study suggests a low dietary exposure to pesticide residues in Yaoundé.

Estimation of the dietary exposure of French consumers to 10 pesticides (omethoate, oxydemeton, phosalon, phosphamidon, triazophos, dicofol (op' + pp'), parathion ethyl, dichlorvos, procymidon and vinchlozolin), three heavy metals (lead, cadmium and arsenic) and three radionuclides (134caesium, 137caesium and 131iodine) from collected duplicate portion in mass catering establishments in 1998/1999 are reported, and compared with those from previous French studies as well as those from other countries. Dietary exposure estimates appear to be reassuring, in that Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) estimates are generally low, representing at maximum only 4% of the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for pesticide residues and 28% of the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) for heavy metals. Moreover, none of the three radionuclides has been found in duplicate meals. When comparisons are possible, estimated dietary exposures for heavy metals are lower than those from previous French studies and similar or above those from other countries.